THE 


VEGETABLE  WORLD. 


BY  CHARLES  WILLIAMS. 


Not  a  tree, 


A  plant,  a  leaf,  a  blossom,  but  contains 
A  folio  volume.    We  may  read,  and  read, 
And  read  again  ;  but  still  find  something  new, 
Something  to  please,  and  something  to  instruct, 
E'en  in  the  noisome  weed.' 

Hurdis. 


Htrftfon* 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED    BY    JAMES  B.   DOW, 
362   WASHINGTON   STREET. 

1833. 


WOIOGT 


PREFACE 

TO   THE   AMERICAN   EDITION. 


THERE  is  no  study  which  has  been  clothed 
with  so  much  fictitious  tediousness,  and  none 
which  has  been  so  much  neglected,  as  that  of 
Botany,  or  an  inquiry  into  the  Vegetable  World. 
This  has  not  only  been  the  case  with  children 
and  youth,  but  those  of  more  advanced  years 
have  neglected  to  take  an  interest  in  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  and  grateful  sources  of  instruction, 
—  a  source  which  is  filled  with  so  much  wonder, 
and  so  productive  of  conviction  of  the  benevo- 
lence of  our  Creator. 

When  this  fact  is  considered,  we  must  esteem 
those  as  benefactors,  who  labor  to  throw  a  charm 
and  interest  around  the  subject,  in  order  to  an 
inducement  to  a  more  thorough  examination  and 


4  PREFACE. 

discovery  of  the  hidden  glories  of  the  carpet  of 
the  earth.  Who  that  considers  attentively  the 
rose,  the  lily,  or  the  simplest  blade  of  grass,  but 
breathes  a  prayer  of  gratitude  to  the  God  of  Na- 
ture, that  all  things  are  so  perfect  and  beautiful  ? 

It  is  with  the  hope  of  adding  some  inducement 
to  a  more  general  inquiry  into  this  subject,  that 
this  work  is  respectfully  submitted  to  parents, 
guardians,  and  instructers  of  youth.  It  is  by  an 
author  of  well-earned  and  deserved  celebrity  in 
England,  —  and  his  works  have  only  to  be  read, 
to  be  equally  prized  in  this  country.  The  ease, 
simplicity,  and  purity  of  language  with  which 
the  facts  are  delineated,  cannot  fail  to  interest 
all,  and  make  it  particularly  applicable  to  the 
wants  of  children  and  youth. 


INTRODUCTION. 


'  OH,  mamma ! '  said  a  fine,  bright-eyed  little 
girl,  as  she  laid  down  a  volume,  entitled  Art  in 
Nature,  and  Science  Anticipated,  '  I  wonder 
where  the  El  woods  live  !  I  should  like  to  know 
what  they  have  been  talking  about  lately.  I  am 
sure  I  should  be  pleased  to  see  Emma ;  I  won- 
der whether  she  is  short  or  tall  —  what  colored 
hair  she  has  —  and  if  she  has  learned  to  sing 
about  £  the  snug  little  nest ! '  And,  then,  what  a 
nice  play-fellow  Frederick  would  be  for  George ! 
And  he  could  tell  him  so  many  things,  for  he 
must  be  very  clever.  Oh,  how  I  wish  they  were 
here ! ' 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  this  record  of  the 
following  year's  conversations  of  the  Elwood 
family  will,  in  part,  supply  the  want  of  personal 
acquaintance,  and  be  as  acceptable  to  the  young 
as  its  predecessor. 


CONTENTS. 


THE   EARLY   PRIMROSES... 9 

THE   DISCOVERY 32 

THE   WALK 53 

THE  PROMISE 75 

THE  CONSERVATORY 96 

CHANGES 119 

THE   DESSERT , 135 

A   SUMMER   EVENING 157 

THE   AGED  TREE 172 

THE   ENIGMA 184 

THE   THREE   REGIONS 199 

ALTITUDES 210 

PERSIAN   SAGACITY * 219 

THE   LAST   ROSES 235 

AN   AUTUMNAL   MORNING. ....246 


THE 


VEGETABLE  WORLD. 


THE  EARLY  PRIMROSES. 

'I  AM  so  glad,  papa — I  am  so  glad!1  said 
Frederick,  as  he  entered  the  room  in  which  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Elwood  were  sitting ;  to  whom  his  sis- 
ter Emma  had  just  been  playing  and  singing  a 
delightful  air. 

'  And  what  makes  you  so  buoyant  and  happy 
this  morning  ?  '  inquired  his  mamma. 

'  Why,  mamma,'  he  replied, e  spring  is  coming ; 
and  though  I  like  the  long  evenings,  when  Emma 
and  I  sit  with  you  and  papa,  and  read  and  talk 
of  distant  countries  and  famous  people,  yet  I  like 
spring  better  ;  because,  besides  hearing  of  them, 
we  can  walk  and  ride  so  much  more ;  the  gar- 
dens, the  fields,  and  the  woods,  begin  to  be  so 
beautiful.' 

'  All  the  seasons  have  their  pleasures/  said  Mr. 
Elwood ;  c  but  now  you  sympathize  with  the  poet 
who  said  : — 

*  Come,  smiling  hope  !  anticipation  come — 

To  fancy's  eye  disclose  the  joyous  spring; 
Lead  where  the  snow-drop  and  the  crocus  blows ; 

Bring  violet  perfumes  on  the  breeze's  wing  ; 


10  THE    CELLULAR  TISSUE. 

Unclasp  the  primrose  ;  bid  the  cowslip  fling 
Its  incense  back  to  heaven  ;  let  matins  rise, 

Till  in  imagination's  ear  shall  ring 
Each  love- told  hymn  that  swells  the  April  skies, 
Ascending  up  to  Him,  all-potent  and  all-wise.' 

But  the  morning  is  by  no  means  a  cheerful  one  ; 
mamma  has  just  been  complaining  of  its  chilliness, 
and  the  clouds  seem  gathering  for  a  storm.  What 
excited,  my  boy,  these  warm  expectations?' 

F.  A  bunch  of  early  primroses,  papa,  which 
I  gathered  from  a  richly  sheltered  bank  ;  I  have 
asked  that  they  may  be  put  in  water,  and,  when 
they  are  ready,  I  mean  to  present  them,  with  my 
love,  to  dear  mamma. 

Mrs.  E.  Thank  you,  my  love  ;  I  like  to  be  so 
affectionately  remembered ;  and  now  take  your 
usual  seat,  and  tell  me  in  what  respects  one  of 
these  pretty  flowers  differs  from  a  stone. 

F.  A  flower  has  life,  mamma ;  and  a  stone  has 
not. 

Mrs.  E.  Very  true,  my  dear.  But,  in  addition 
to  this,  a  plant  is  very  wonderfully  formed  ;  it  is 
thus  prepared  to  receive  nourishment  from  the 
soil  from  whence  it  springs,  and  also  to  produce 
others  like  itself. 

F.  What  parts,  mamma,  has  a  plant  ? 

Mrs.  E.  One  is  called  the  cellular  tissue.  If, 
for  instance,  you  take  a  thin  transverse  slice  of 
the  stem  of  any  plant,  or  a  slice  cut  across  its 
stem,  and  you  then  put  it  into  a  drop  of  pure  wa- 
ter, and  place  it  under  a  microscope,  you  will  see 
it  consists  chiefly  of  cells,  more  or  less  regular, 
resembling  those  of  a  honey-comb,  or  a  net-work 
of  cobweb.  Their  size  varies  in  different  plants, 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant ;  and 


THE    VASCULAR    SYSTEM.  1  1 

they  are  sometimes  so  minute  as  to  require  a  mil- 
lion to  cover  a  square  inch  of  surface.  This  sin- 
gular structure,  besides  containing  water,  fluid, 
and  air,  is  the  repository  or  store-house  of  various 
secretions;  through  it  also  the  sap,  when  produc- 
ed (as  we  shall  presently  see),  is  diffused  side- 
ways through  the  plant ;  and  by  it  many  changes 
occur  in  the  juices  that  fill  its  cells.  But  papa 
will  now  describe  the  vascular  system. 

Mr.  E.  It  consists  of  another  set  of  small  ves- 
sels. If,  for  example,  a  branch  be  cut  transverse- 
ly early  in  the  spring,  the  sap  will  ooze  out  from 
numerous  points  over  the  whole  of  the  surface, 
except  that  part  which  the  pith  and  the  bark  occu- 
py;  and  if  a  twig,  on  which  the  leaves  are  already 
unfolded,  be  cut  frorn  the  tree,  and  placed  with 
its  cut  end  in  a  watery  solution  of  Brazil  wood, 
the  coloring  matter  will  ascend  into  the  leaves 
and  to  the  top  of  the  twig.  In  both  cases,  a  close 
examination  with  a  powerful  microscope  will  show 
that  the  sap  perspires  from  the  divided  portion  of 
the  stem,  and  that  the  coloring  matter  rises  to  the 
top  of  the  twig  through  real  tubes.  These  are 
the  sap,  or  conducting  vessels  of  the  plant.  But 
if  we  examine  a  transverse  section  of  the  vine,  or 
of  any  other  tree,  at  a  later  period  of  the  season, 
we  find  that  the  wood  is  apparently  dry,  whilst 
the  bark,  particularly  that  part  next  the  wood,  is 
swelled  with  fluid.  This  is  contained  in  vessels 
of  a  different  description  from  those  in  which  the 
sap  rises  ;  they  are  found  in  the  bark  only  in 
trees,  and  may  be  termed  returning  vessels,  from 
their  carrying  the  sap  downwards,  after  its  prep- 
aration in  the  leaf.  The  passage  of  the  sap  is 


12  FIBRES. 

thought  to  take  place,  like  that  of  the  blood  in 
us,  from  the  regular  expanding  and  contracting 
of  the  vessels ;  but  to  be  certain  is  almost  impos- 
sible, because  of  their  extreme  minuteness ;  as, 
according  to  numerous  observations  made  with 
the  microscope,  their  diameter  seldom  exceeds  a 
290th  part  of  a  line,  or  a  3000th  part  of  an  inch. 
Leuwenhoeck  reckoned  20,000  vessels  in  a  mor- 
sel of  oak  about  one  nineteenth  of  an  inch  square. 

E.  Eapa,  I  should  think  the  vascular  system 
is  something  like  our  veins  and  arteries. 

Mr.  E.  There  is  such  a  resemblance,  my  dear. 
A  plant  has  also  tracheae,  which  are  composed  of 
very  minute  elastic  spiral  tubes,  and  convey  air 
both  to  and  from  the  plant. 

There  are  also  fibres,  composed  of  collections 
of  these  vessels  and  cells,  closely  united,  together. 
These  form  the  root  and  stem.  If  you  attempt 
to  cut  them  transversely,  you  will  meet  with  dif- 
ficulty, because  you  have  to  force  your  way  across 
the  tubes,  and  break  them  ;  but  if  you  slit  the 
wood  lengthways,  the  vessels  are  separated  with- 
out breaking.  Delicate  as  they  are,  they  are 
carefully  and  wonderfully  preserved  from  injury, 
so  that  they  are  not  crushed  by  the  pressure  of 
the  bark,  or  of  the  surrounding  parts.  The  lay- 
ers of  wood,  which  appear  in  the  stem  or  branch 
of  a  tree  cut  tranversely,  consist  of  different  zones 
of  fibres,  each  the  produce  of  one  year's  growth, 
and  separated  by  a  coat  of  cellular  tissue,  with- 
out which  they  could  not  well  be  distinguished. 
There  is  also  the  cuticle,  which  extends  over 
every  part  of  the  plant,  and  covers  the  bark,  which 
consists  of  three  distinct  coats.  The  liber,  or  in- 


SLEEP    OF    PLANTS.  13 

ncr  bark,  is  said  to  be  formed  of  hollow  tubes, 
which  convey  the  sap  downwards,  to  increase  the 
solid  diameter  of  the  tree. 

That  of  the  Lagetto  is  very  curious;  it  re- 
sembles net- work  or  lace,  and  hence  it  is  call- 
ed the  Lace-bark  tree.  This  bark  is  very  beau- 
tiful, and  consists  of  several  layers  that  may  be 
easily  drawn  out  into  a  fine  white  silky  web, 
three  or  four  feet  wide,  like  lace  or  gauze,  and 
it  has  often  been  used  for  ladies'  dresses.  A 
celebrated  botanist  says  that  it  may  be  washed 
without  injury.  King  Charles  the  Second  is 
said  to  have  had  a  cravat  made  of  this  web  pre- 
sented to  him  by  the  Governor  of  Jamaica,  of 
which  island,  and  of  Hispaniola,  it  is  a  native. 

E.  That  is  very  singular.  Do  plants  ever 
sleep,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  Oh,  yes !  Some,  like  a  few  of  our 
birds,  more  of  our  insects,  and  almost  all  our 
forest  beasts,  seem  to  sleep  through  the  day,  and 
to  awake  and  become  active  at  night ;  while  the 
greater  number  of  plants,  as  well  as  animals, 
resign  themselves  to  sleep  at  sunset,  and  appear 
re-invigorated  with  the  dawn.  To  give  you  an 
example :  the  flowers  of  one  class*  are  called 
Papilonaceous,  a  word  taken  from  Papilio,  the 
Latin  for  butterfly ;  and  those  of  this  tribe 
generally  spread  out  those  parts  which  are  call- 
ed their  wings,  in  fine  weather,  to  admit  the  rays 
of  the  sun ;  and  fold  them  up  again  at  the 
approach  of  night.  The  fact  was  first  observed 
by  Linnaeus.  Some  seeds  of  one  of  these  plants 

*  Diadelphia,  order  Decandria. 
1* 


14  ACTION    OF    THE    ROOT. 

were  given  him  by  a  friend,  and,  having  sown 
them  in  his  green-house,  they  soon  produced 
two  beautiful  flowers.  The  gardener  was  absent 
when  these  were  first  observed;  and  in  the 
evening,  when  Linnaeus  took  him  with  a  Ian- 
thorn  to  see  them,  they  were  no  where  to  be 
found;  so  that  he  himself  supposed  they  had 
been  destroyed  by  insects,  or  by  some  accident; 
but  the  next  morning,  to  his  great  surprise,  he 
found  his  flowers  just  where  they  had  been  the 
day  before.  That  evening,  too,  they  were  not 
to  be  seen,  but  the  next  morning  they  looked  as 
fresh  as  ever.  The  gardener  said,  '  These  can- 
not be  the  same  flowers ;  they  must  have  blown 
since/  But  Linnaeus  was  not  so  easily  satisfied  ; 
as  soon  as  it  was  dark  he  once  more  visited  the 
plant,  and,  after  lifting  up  all  its  leaves,  one  by 
one,  he  found  the  two  flowers  folded  up,  and  so 
closely  concealed  under  them,  that  it  was  im- 
possible, at  first  sight,  to  discover  what  they 
were.  This  led  him  to  observe  other  flowers  of 
the  same  tribe,  when  he  found  that  all  of  them, 
more  or  less,  closed  at  night,  and  this  he  called 
'  the  sleep  of  plants/ 

Mrs.  E.  We  must  now  attend  to  the  root, 
which  is  not  only  designed  to  support  the  plant 
by  fixing  it  in  the  soil,  but  also  to  be  a  channel 
for  the  conveyance  of  nourishment.  It  is 
therefore  furnished  with  pores,  or  spongioles,  as 
they  are  called,  from  their  resemblance  to  a 
small  sponge,  to  suck  up  whatever  comes  within 
its  reach,  as  a  lump  of  sugar  absorbs  the  liquid 
into  which  it  is  put.  Roots  are  various  in  their 
form,  and  are  hence  adapted  to  a  great  diversity 


REMARKABLE    WILLOWS.  15 

of  soils  and  circumstances.  The  root  of  the 
orchis  is  very  singular.  It  has  two  lobes  some- 
what like  the  two  parts  into  which  a  bean  is 
divided ;  one  of  these  perishes  annually,  and 
another  shoots  up  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
other;  and,  as  the  stem  rises  every  spring  from 
between  the  two,  the  plant  moves  a  little  on- 
wards every  year. 

E.  Why,  then,  mamma,  if  it  only  lived  to  be 
old  enough,  it  would  travel  all  round  the  garden  ! 
But  it  would  take  a  long  time  to  do  that,  for  I 
find  it  is  a  very  slow  traveller,  just  like  our  friend 
Mr.  Churchill,  who  says  that,  when  he  was 
young,  he  could  ride  sixteen  miles  an  hour,  but, 
now  he  is  old,  he  manages  to  ride  only  a  mile  in 
two! 

Mrs.  E.  Indeed,  my  dear !  I  have  heard, 
too,  that  a  willow-tree  was  dug  up ;  the  head 
was  then  planted  in  the  ground,  and  the  roots 
stretched  out  in  the  air  like  naked  branches. 
But  the  roots,  iny  course  of  time,  became 
branches,  and  the  branches  roots ;  or  rather, 
roots  sprouted  from  the  branches  beneath,  and 
branches  shot  out  from  the  roots  above.  Some 
roots  last  one  year,  others  two,  and  others  live, 
like  their  shrubs  and  trees,  for  an  indefinite 
period;  but  they  all  consist  of  a  collection  of 
fibres  composed  of  vascular  and  cellular  tissue, 
but  without  tracheae,  or  breathing  vessels. 

Mr.  E.  The  plant  needs  also  a  stem, 
through  which  the  sap  circulates,  and  from 
which  the  leaves  and  flowers  spring.  Some- 
times this  is  seen,  as  in  the  rose,  and  at  others 
it  is  hidden,  like  the  stem  of  the  tulip,  which  is 


16  ACTION    OF    THE    STEM. 

shut  up  in  the  bulb.  Some  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Alps  are  covered  with  willow-grass,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  guess  its  origin,  but  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
extremities  of  the  branches  of  a  large  willow- 
tree. 

E.  Oh,  papa! — how  does  that  happen? 

Mr.  E.  Suppose  a  willow  to  grow  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain,  and  the  earth  which  is 
annually  carried  down  by  the  rains  to  bury  the 
young  plant ;  and  then,  its  growth  having  been 
thus  checked,  and  the  sap,  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  expended  in  foliage,  being  accu- 
mulated in  the  little  stem,  there  will  be  sufficient 
nourishment  for  a  double  shoot ;  and  two  little 
branches  will  appear  next  spring.  These 
flourish  but  for  a  season,  and  are  buried ;  but 
the  following  spring,  four  stems  are  produced  ; 
these,  undergoing  the  same  process,  yield  eight ; 
and,  as  the  plant  thus  annually  doubles  its 
sprouts,  and  the  soil  rises,  a  verdant  plain  is 
gradually  formed  of  the  leaves  of  the  willow-tree. 
The  age  of  these  willows  has  been  found  by 
digging  down  the  side  of  the  plain,  and  observing 
how  often  the  shoots  have  been  renewed ;  the 
lower  they  go,  the  more  do  the  branches  in- 
crease in  size,  and  diminish  in  number,  till,  at 
length,  they  reach  the  single  and  original  stem. 

Jr.  What  is  the  use  of  the  stem,  mamma? 

Mrs.  E.  It  distributes  the  nourishment  taken 
up  by  the  roots  to  the  several  parts  of  the  plant. 
The  seat  of  vitality  seems  to  be  in  the  point  or 
spot  called  the  neck,  which  separates  the  stem 
from  the  root.  If  the  root  of  a  young  plant  be 
cut  off,  it  will  shoot  out  afresh ;  if  the  stem  be 


THE    BAMBOO.  17 

taken  away,  it  will  be  renewed ;   but,  if  this  part 
be  injured,  the  plant  will  certainly  perish. 

Mr.E.  Some  stems  are  very  remarkable.  That 
of  the  sugar-cane  sometimes  grows  to  the  height 
of  twenty  feet.  The  stems  of  the  bamboo,  a  spe- 
cies of  reed  found  in  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  America,  are  almost  solid  when  young,  but 
become  hollow  as  they  grow  older,  except  at  the 
joints.  I  will  read  you  a  description  of  some  :  — 
*  Among  the  trees  which  attracted  our  attention/ 
says  Dr.  Walsh,  in  his  Travels  in  Brazil,  '  were 
the  different  species  of  bamboo,  some  of  which 
were  of  enormous  size,  and  some  of  singular  beau- 
ty. Of  the  first  kind  were  many  that  measured 
two  feet  in  circumference,  sending  out  large  lat- 
eral branches,  and  so  tall  as  to  resemble  forest 
trees.  Others,  of  equal  magnitude,  without  any 
branches,  shot  out  a  single  stem,  divided  into  reg- 
ular joints,  smooth  and  tapering  to  a  point,  till 
they  attained  an  immense  height.  Some  were 
not  so  thick,  but  ran  up  till  they  became  so 
slender  that  they  bent  down,  gradually  tapering 
to  a  very  fine  point,  as  thin  as  a  horse-hair,  and 
waving  across  the  road  like  long  fishing-rods.  I 
cut  one  of  them  which  had  shot  up  from  the  val- 
ley below,  about  the  middle,  where  it  was  not 
quite  so  thick  as  my  wrist.  After  carrying  it 
some  time  in  my  hand,  where  it  felt  lighter  than 
a  cart-whip,  I  laid  it  along  the  road,  and  meas- 
ured its  length,  and  found  it  fifteen  yards  long, 
so  that  the  entire  plant  must  have  been  ninety 
feet,  tapering  and  polished  the  whole  way  with 
the  most  exquisite  finish/  Another  kind  was  so 
prolific  that  it  covered  the  whole  surface  of  the 


18  THE    GROWTH    OF    STEMS. 

forest,  climbing  to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees, 
and  clothing  them  with  the  most  exquisite  ver- 
dure. Sometimes  it  ran  from  tree  to  tree,  cov- 
ering the  whole  sloping  surface  of  a  glen  with  a 
level  uniform  curtain  of  the  richest  drapery.  This 
vegetable  substance  is  called  '  the  grass  of  the 
thicket.'  It  yields  the  cattle  a  supply  of  green 
and  wholesome  fodder  at  all  seasons.  A  great 
part  of  the  soil  of  India  is  covered  with  forests  of 
bamboo.  This  tree  is  adapted  to  various  pur- 
poses, It  is  used  in  building,  for  furniture,  and 
fishing  implements,  and  to  support  a  kind  of  lit- 
ter, or  bed,  called  a  palanquin,  which  is  carried 
about  on  the  shoulders  of  men,  and  used  as  a  se- 
dan-chair is  here. 

E.  But  how  can  hollow  reeds  be  so  strong  ? 

Mrs.  E.  Whatever  is  cylindrical,  rny  dear,  is 
much  stronger  than  what  is  solid,  when  only  the 
same  quantity  of  matter  is  used.  The  woody 
part  of  the  smaller  sorts  of  trees  is  generally  in 
the  cenne,  which  makes  them  pliable,  while,  in 
the  trunk,  it  stands  round  the  centre  at  some 
distance  from  it,  and  thus  gives  strength  to  the 
stem,  and  is  favorable  to  its  upright  growth. 
Some  stems  grow  internally,  and  others  external- 
ly. To  the  former  class  belong  the  sugar-cane, 
the  date,  the  palm,  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  most 
others  of  tropical  climates.  It  might  be  thought 
that  the  new  layers  of  wood,  growing  in  the  in- 
ner part  of  the  stern,  would  burst  the  outside  ; 
but  this  becomes,  on  the  contrary,  closer,  and 
more  compact,  until  it  will  yield  no  longer,  hav- 
ing attained  its  full  growth.  It  then  begins  to 
shoot  upward.  In  plants  that  grow  externally, 


THE    GROWTH    OF  STEMS.  19 

the  process  is  far  more  complicated  ;  the  wood 
consists,  at  first,  of  the  pith — a  soft  substance 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem,  and  is  al- 
most always  cylindrical — the  layer  that  then  sur- 
rounds it  grows  freely  during  a  twelvemonth ; 
but  the  following  year  it  is  enclosed  by  a  new 
layer  ;  and,  compelled  to  yield  laterally  or  side- 
ways, it  makes  its  way  upwards  where  there  is 
no  pressure,  and  thus  the  stern  grows  in  height 
at  the  same  time  that  it  increases  in  thickness. 
Other  layers  take  the  same  course,  and  they  at- 
tain moturity  when  they  become  so  hard,  by  con- 
tinued pressure,  as  to  be  no  longer  able  to  yield 
to  it.  Previous  to  this,  they  are  called  alburnum, 
or  white  wood,  for  wood  is  always  white,  not  ex- 
cepting even  ebony,  until  it  reaches  this  state. 
The  alburnum  has,  in  deal,  a  whiter  color,  is 
more  spongy,  and  less  durable,  than  the  more 
perfect  or  heart-wood,  as  it  is  termed.  If  you 
count  the  number  of  layers  at  each  end  of  a  log, 
you  will  see  how  many  years  that  part  of  the  tree 
was  in  growing  ;  thus,  if  there  are  thirty  at  one 
end,  and  twenty  at  the  other,  the  tree  was  ten 
years  growing  that  length.  The  annual  layers 
of  woods  are  separated  by  layers  of  the  cellular 
system. 

Mr.  E.  The  layers  of  the  bark  grow  internal- 
ly, like  those  of  the  palm-tree  ;  and,  if  a  silver 
wire  or  blade  be  passed  completely  through  the 
bark  of  a  tree,  the  new  internal  layers,  as  they 
are  annually  formed,  will  gradually  push  it  out- 
ward, till,  at  length,  the  internal  coat  becoming 
external,  the  wire  will  fall  off.  Thus  inscrip- 
tions on  the  bark  of  trees  are  effaced ;  but,  if 


20  AERIAL    PLANTS. 

they  are  made  so  deep  as  to  penetrate  the  layers 
of  wood,  the  new  layers  of  bark  will  preserve 
them.  Adamson  relates,  that,  in  visiting  Cape 
Verd,  he  was  struck  by  a  tree  fifty  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. He  recollected  having  read,  in 
some  old  voyages,  of  an  inscription  on  a  tree  like 
this,  yet  he  could  not  discover  one  ;  but  cutting 
into  the  tree,  he  found  it  entire,  under  three  hun- 
dred layers  of  wood.  Three  hundred  years  had 
therefore  elapsed  since  the  inscription  was  made ; 
and  he  calculated  that  the  tree  was  probably 
about  five  thousand  years  old. 

F.  I  suppose,  papa,  all  plants  find  food  in  the 
earth. 

Mr.  E.  No,  my  dear.  Some  are  called  aerial. 
Such  are  the  most  succulent  or  juicy  plants  of 
hot  countries,  among  which  are  several  of  the 
palms  and  canes,  and  the  greater  number  of 
those  that  adorn  the  fields  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  where  rain  falls  only  for  a  few  weeks  in 
winter.  A  shrub  from  Jamaica*  was  long  propa- 
gated here,  in  stoves,  by  cuttings ;  but,  though 
they  were  freely  watered,  and  grew  several  feet 
in  length  every  season,  they  could  never  be  made 
to  produce  any  signs  of  fruit.  It  happened,  how- 
ever, that  some  young  cuttings  were  laid  aside 
and  forgotten  at  Kew,  and  thus,  having  no  wa- 
ter, and  becoming  dry  as  in  their  healthy  state, 
every  extremity  produced  a  flower.  Hence  it 
has  been  thought  that  such  plants  derive  the 
whole  of  their  nutriment  from  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  ;  and  that  all  the  advantage  they  ob- 

*  Solandra  grandiflora. 


AERIAL    PLANTS.  21 

tain  from  thrusting  their  roots  into  the  soil  or 
sand  is  that  of  having  an  erect  position. 

Mrs.  E.  The  air  plants*  are  indeed  no  less 
singular  than  beautiful ;  they  attach  themselves 
to  the  driest  and  most  sapless  surface,  and  flow- 
er as  if  issuing  from  the  richest  soils.  '  A  speci- 
men of  one  of  these,  which  I  thought  curious/ 
says  Dr.  Walsh,  '  I  threw  into  my  portmanteau, 
where  it  was  forgotten ;  and,  some  months  after, 
in  unfolding  some  linen,  I  was  astonished  to  find 
a  rich  scarlet  flower  in  full  blow  ;  it  had  not  only 
lived,  but  vegetated  and  blossomed,  though  so 
long  secluded  from  air,  light,  and  humidity/ 
The  barren  pine  |  is  not  less  extraordinary.  It 
also  gro>vs  on  sapless  trees,  and  never  on  the 
ground.  Its  seeds  are  furnished,  on  the  crown, 
with  a  long  filmy  fibre,  like  the  thread  of  gossa- 
mer. As  they  ripen  they  are  detached,  and 
driven  with  the  wind,  having  the  long  thread 
streaming  behind  them.  When  they  meet  with 
the  obstruction  of  a  withered  branch,  the  thread 
is  caught,  and,  revolving  round,  the  seed,  at 
length,  comes  into  fixed  contact  with  the  surface, 
where  it  soon  vegetates,  and  supplies  the  naked 
arm  with  a  new  foliage.  In  Brazil  it  grows  like 
the  common  plant  of  a  pine-apple,  and  shoots 
from  its  centre  a  long  spike  of  bright  scarlet 
blossoms.  In  some  species,  the  leaves  are  protu- 
berant below,  and  form  vessels  like  pitchers, 
which  catch  and  retain  the  rain  water,  furnish- 
ing cool  and  refreshing  draughts  to  the  heated 
traveller,  in  heights  where  no  water  is  to  be 

*  Epidendron.  t  Tillandsia. 


22  LEAVES. 

found. /  The  quantity  of  this  fluid  is  sometimes 
very  considerable,  arid  those  who  have  attempted 
to  reach  the  flower-stem  have  been  often  drench- 
ed by  upsetting  the  plant. 

Mr.  E.  We  should  now  attend  a  little  to  the 
leaves.  These,  when  they  first  shoot,  are  gener- 
ally enclosed  in  small  scaly  buds,  evidently  de- 
signed to  defend  them  from  the  inclemency  of 
the  weather ;  but  some  leaves  are  of  so  hardy  a 
nature  as  not  to  require  a  covering,  especially 
when  growing  in  a  warm  climate.  Some  buds 
sprout  into  flowers  and  fruits,  others  into  fruit 
and  leaves,  and  some  into  leaves  and  branches 
only.  Germs  seem  to  exist  in  every  part  of  the 
stern,  and  wherever  the  sap  accumulates,  a  bud 
appears.  And  here  I  may  mention  a  remarkable 
fact.  In  Sweden,  the  budding  and  leaving  of  the 
birch-tree  is  taken  as  a  guide  for  sowing  barley. 
The  idea  originated  with  the  illustrious  natural- 
ist, Linnaeus,  who  urged  his  countrymen  to  ob- 
serve most  diligently  and  carefully  at  what  time 
each  tree  unfolds  its  buds,  and  expands  its  leaves. 
This  has  been  done,  and  Mr.  Harold  fiarck  has 
published  the  order  of  the  leaving  of  trees  in  that 
country.  Correct  observations  on  the  foliation  of 
trees  and  shrubs  in  England  have  also  been  made 
by  Mr.  Stillingfleet.  The  first  on  his  list  is  the 
honeysuckle,  which  is  dated  January  15,  and  the 
last,  which  is  the  thirty-sixth,  is  the  Carolina 
poplar,  dated  April  22.  The  succession  thus 
pointed  out  is  invaluable,  and  provides  the  farmer 
with  a  calendar  for  spring.  The  discoloring  of 
the  leaves,  and  their  falling  ofF,  will  also  guide 
him  as  to  the  approach  of  winter  j  and  thus  there 


CALENDAR    OF    NATURE,  $ 

is  '  a  small  still  voice,'  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  voice  of  God !  Leaves  usually  last  but  one 
season.  Evergreens  change  their  leaves  annual- 
ly ;  the  young  leaves  appear  before  the  old  ones 
decay,  and  thus  the  plant  retains  its  verdure. 
The  talipot-leaf  is  very  remarkable.  It  is  com- 
pletely circular,  terminates  in  the  most  beautiful 
rays,  and  folds  up  into  plaits,  like  a  fan.  It  is 
from  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter  ;  its  length  and 
thickness  are  proportionate,  arid  it  can  cover  sev- 
eral persons  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather. 
It  is  made  into  umbrellas  of  all  sizes,  and  equally 
serves  to  protect  the  natives  from  the  intense 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  rains  which,  at  particu- 
lar seasons,  deluge  their  country.  While  they 
are  falling,  a  native  may  sometimes  be  seen  prop- 
ping up  one  end  of  a  talipot-leaf  with  a  stick,  and 
then  creeping  under  it  for  protection.  The  leaf 
of  the  troolie,  of  Surinam,  is  said,  however,  to 
attain  three  feet  in  width,  and  thirty  in  length; 
the  natives  cover  their  houses  with  it,  and  it  is 
very  durable. 

F.  Papa,  I  should  like  to  hear  something 
about  the  sap. 

Mr.  E.  The  sap,  which  rises  in  the  roots, 
consists  simply  of  water,  holding  a  variety  of 
crude  ingredients.  All  that  is  necessary  is 
selected  and  retained  to  nourish  the  plant,  and 
part  is  exhaled,  or  thrown  out,  by  the  leaves. 
During  the  spring,  there  is  more  than  the  usual- 
quantity  in  order  to  nourish  the  young  buds, 
which  are  then  to  appear.  Thus  the  sap  resem- 
bles the  milk  of  animals,  which  is  produced  for 
a  similar  purpose,  and  which  is  provided  only 


24  NURSELING    SAP. 

when  there  are  young  to  feed  on  it.  Heat  first 
expands  the  buds,  and  makes  room  for  the  sap. 
To  show  this,  two  pieces  of  vine  were  placed  in 
two  similar  vessels  of  water,  and  the  stem  and 
branches  of  one  of  them  were  then  introduced 
through  a  hole  in  the  wall  into  a  hot-house  ;  the 
buds  of  this  plant  were  rapidly  unfolded,  and  the 
water  in  the  vessel  as  quickly  sucked  up,  whilst 
the  buds  of  the  other  made  only  their  usual  pro- 
gress, and  the  water  was  but  slowly  lessened. 
Having  thus  mentioned  what  may  be  called  the 
nurseling  sap,  it  should  be  observed  that  that 
which  rises  to  feed  the  mature  plant  reaches  the 
leaves  without  undergoing  any  change ;  but  as 
soon  as  it  arrives  there  it  throws  off  a  large  por- 
tion of  its  water,  leaving  the  nourishment  it  con- 
tained in  the  leaf.  And  it  is  remarkable,  that, 
without  light,  no  evaporation  will  take  place, 
and  it  will  even  be  inconsiderable,  unless  the 
sun's  rays  fall  on  the  plant.  This  process  has 
been  called  by  some  the  transpiration  of  plants; 
and  it  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Hales  that  a  full- 
blown sun-flower,  placed  favorably  as  to  light 
and  heat,  transpired  twenty  ounces  of  water  a 
day,  which  is  seventeen  times  more  than  is 
evaporated  by  a  man,  supposing  their  surfaces 
equal.  Apples,  plums,  peaches,  and  other 
fleshy  fruits  have  few  or  no  pores ,  they,  there- 
fore, retain  the  moisture  they  receive  from  the 
sap,  which  enables  them  to  remain  long  on  the 
tree,  after  coming  to  maturity,  without  drying 
up  or  withering ;  whilst  peas,  and  beans,  and 
other  dry  fruits,  wither,  in  consequence  of  the 
number  of  their  pores.  Leaves,  too,  vary  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  with  the  same  result 


fcFSP  I  RATION.  2£ 

E.  What,  papa,  becomes  of  the  sap  that 
remains  in  the  leaf  after  the  moisture  it  does  not 
want  is  gone  ? 

Mr.  E.  Enriched  by  the  nourishment  which 
the  moisture  left  behind,  it  now  undergoes  a 
change,  as  the  blood  in  our  frames  does  from 
the  air  which  we  inhale,  but,  with  this  differ- 
ence, we  give  out  what  is  called  carbon,  while, 
this  being  the  principal  ingredient  of  wood  and 
all  that  is  vegetable,  the  store  of  it  in  plants 
requires  to  be  increased.  A  man  exhales  no 
less  than  eleven  ounces  a  day,  and  plants  receive 
it  in  large  quantities.  M.  de  Saussure  trans- 
planted fourteen  periwinkles  into  vases,  seven 
of  which  he  watered  with  distilled  water,  and 
the  other  seven  with  water  in  its  usual  state. 
He  afterwards  found  that  the  former  had  not 
acquired  any  carbon,  whilst  the  latter  obtained 
a  considerable  quantity ;  the  wood  being  one- 
sixth  heavier  than  that  of  the  other.  Plants, 
however,  absorb  oxygen  during  the  night,  and, 
combining  with  the  carbon,  it  forms  carbonic 
acid  ;  but,  during  the  day,  the  oxygen  is  restor- 
ed to  the  atmosphere.  How  wonderful  is  this ! 

Mrs.  E.  The  sap,  changed  by  an  acquisition 
of  carbon,  is  called  cambium,  or  returning  sap, 
and  passes  into  another  set  of  vessels,  which 
convey  it  downwards ;  and,  as  it  traverses  the 
several  organs,  it  leaves  in  each  what  is  necessa- 
ry for  their  sustenance.  Here,  too,  is  a  striking 
resemblance  to  what  appears  in  the  human 
frame.  From  one  and  the  same  blood,  about 
twenty  different  fluids  are  separated ;  as  unlike 
one  another  in  their  sensible  properties — in 
2* 


26  THE    HONEY-TLOWER CAOUTCHOUC. 

taste,  smell,  color,  and  consistency,  as  possi- 
ble— thick,  thin,  bitter,  sweet;  and  if  we  pass 
from  our  own  to  other  species  of  animals,  we 
find  amongst  their  secretions,  not  only  the  most 
various,  but  the  most  opposite  qualities — the 
most  nutritious  aliment  and  the  deadliest  poison — 
the  sweetest  perfumes  and  the  most  ietid  odors. 
As  the  viper  pours  out  a  fluid  fatal  to  other 
animals,  and  yet  offers,  in  the  general  substance 
of  his  body,  a  sort  of  antidote  to  his  venom,  so 
the  Indian  cassava  secretes  in  its  root  a  juice  or 
oil  extremely  poisonous,  while  its  leaves  are 
freely  eaten ;  and  even  the  root,  deprived  by 
heat  of  its  juice  or  oil,  gives  bread  to  the  natives, 
and  tapioca  as  an  article  of  commerce.  Its 
starch,  too,  is  like  that  of  the  finest  wheat-flour, 
arid,  combined  with  potatoes  and  sugar,  yields 
the  grateful  beverages — cyder  and  perry.  Nor 
is  this  a  solitary  instance.  Some  of  the  secre- 
tions separated  from  the  cambium  are  designed 
to  remain  in  the  plant,  and  others  are  conveyed 
out  of  it  as  useless  or  detrimental.  Mamma 
will,  I  know,  assist  me  in  remembering  a  few  of 
them. 

Mrs.  E.  The  honey-flower,*  a  Cape  plant, 
produces  more  honey  than  any  other,  and  in 
^such  abundance  that  a  tea-spoonful  may  be 
collected  every  morning  from  each  of  its  numer- 
ous flowers ;  though  its  strong  and  disagreeable 
smell,  when  bruised,  indicates  a  poisonous  quali- 
ty. The  tree  that  produces  caoutchouc,  or  In- 
dian rubber,  'Which  was  first  introduced  into  Eu- 

*  Melianthus. 


THE    TALLOW-TREE.  27 

rope  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  is 
a  native  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
This  substance  is  an  elastic  resin,  obtained  by 
making  incisions  in  the  stem.  The'  juice  is 
collected  as  it  trickles  from  the  wound,  and 
moulds  of  clay,  in  the  form  of  little  bottles,  are 
dipped  into  it.  A  layer  of  this  juice  dries  on 
the  clay,  and  several  layers  are  added  till  the 
bottle  is  of  sufficient  thickness.  It  is  then 
beaten  to  break  down  the  clay,  which  is  easily 
shaken  out.  The  Indians  make  boots  of 
caoutchouc,  which  are  water-proof,  and,  when 
smoked,  look  like  leather.  The  inhabitants  of 
Quito  prepare  from  it  a  kind  of  cloth,  which 
they  use  as  we  do  oil  and  sail-cloth ;  and,  in  the 
West  Indies,  flambeaux  are  made  of  it,  that  burn 
without  a  wick,  and  are  used  by  fishermen  when 
they  go  out  to  fish  at  night.  Within  the  last 
few  years,  papa  has  had  a  cloak  which  it  makes 
water-proof. 

E.  Oh,  mamma  !  I  know  which  it  is ;  papa 
calls  it  his  umbrella,  because  it  keeps  off  the 
rain  ;  but  can  you  tell  us  how  they  use  it  ? 

Mrs.  E/  The  caoutchouc  is  dissolved  in  naph- 
tha, a  brownish  liquor  obtained  in  making  gas  from 
coal,  so  as  to  form  a  varnish,  with  which  thin 
cloth,  or  silk,  or  calico,  is  covered.  As,  howev- 
er, the  varnish  is  sticky,  a  second  thin  cloth  is 
put  over  it,  and  the  whole  is  passed  between  roll- 
ers, which  make  it  quite  smooth  and  of  equal 
thickness  throughout.  I  remember,  too,  the  tal- 
low-tree *  is  remarkable  for  the  quantity  and  pe~ 

*  Stillingia  sebifera. 


8  THE    MANCHINEAL — SOAP  BERRIES. 

culiar  quality  of  the  oil  obtained  from  its  berries, 
which  so  nearly  resembles  wax  or  spermaceti, 
that  candles  are  made  of  it;  but  they  produce,  in 
burning,  a  very  disagreeable  smell.  Castor-oil  is 
obtained  from  the  seeds  of  a  tree,*  which,  when 
ripe,  are  dried  in  the  sun,  pounded  in  wooden 
mortars,  and  then  boiled  in  water,  when  the  oil 
rises  to  the  surface,  is  skimmed  off,  and  put  into 
jars  for  use. 

Mr.  E.  The  manchineal  is  found  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  always  grows  on  the  beach.  It  bears 
a  small,  green  apple,  like  a  golden  pippin,  and 
of  exquisite  odor ;  but  it  contains  an  extremely 
caustic  milk,  with  which  it  is  said  arrows  have 
often  been, poisoned.  Sailors  are  not  unfrequent- 
ly  deceived  by  its  appearance,  and  eat  it ;  and  to 
do  so  would  issue  fatally,  were  not  an  antidote 
provided  in  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane.  When 
it  is  to  be  cut  down,  as  the  wood  makes  beauti- 
ful furniture,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  fire  made 
round  it,  to  cause  the  juice  to  runout  safely.  A 
friend  of  mine  mentioned,  a  few  days  ago,  that 
he  had  often  seen  negroes  who  had  gone  incau- 
tiously near  it,  whose  faces  were  dreamily  swollen, 
and  who  were  laid  up  in  consequence  for  some 
days.  A  bush  in  the  West  Indies  yields  what 
are  called  soap-berries;  the  inner  substance, 
which  is  of  a  yellow  color,  being  often  used,  when 
ripe,  for  soap,  while  the  berries,  of  which  it  is 
the  covering,  may  frequently  be  observed  made 
into  necklaces  and  other  ornaments. 

JE.  I  have  often  seen  them,  mamma  ;  Miss  An- 

*  Ricinus  communis. 


CANDLEBERRY-TREE.  29 

drews  has  a  row  of  them,  and  bracelets  to  match : 
and  I  did  not  know  what  they  were ;  but  when  I 
was  at  Mr.  Selborne,  the  jeweller's,  I  saw  some 
on  the  counter,  and  I  asked  him  what  he  called 
them ;  and  so  I  satisfied  my  curiosity  without  be- 
ing so  rude  as  to  seen  /to  notice  Miss  Andre  ws's 
necklace  and  bracelets ! 

Mr.  E.  I  am  glad  you  did  so,  my  dear. — An 
American  tree  produces  milk,  and  hence  is  call- 
ed the  cow-tree.  It  grows  in  rocky  and  barren 
districts,  little  adapted  for  the  pasturage  of  cattle. 
It  rises  on  the  unfruitful  side  of  a  rock,  with 
leaves  dry  and  leathery,  which,  during  many 
months  of  the  year,  are  not  moistened  by  a  sin- 
gle shower.  The  branches  appear  dead  and  dry ; 
but,  when  the  trunk  is  pierced,  a  sweet  and  nour- 
ishing milk  flows  from  it,  which  is  most  abundant 
at  sun-rise ;  then  the  natives  hasten  from  all 
quarters  to  the  vegetable  fountain,  and  receive 
the  milk  in  large  bowls. 

Mrs.  E.  In  America  there  is  a  small  tree,, 
about  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  with  crooked  stems 
branching  forth  near  the  ground,  and  the  leaves 
growing  irregularly.  Its  flowers  and  dry  blue 
berries  make  no  show ;  the  tree  owes  its  beauty 
and  value  to  the  leaves  ;  for  these  being  bruised, 
as  well  as  the  bark  of  the  young  shoots,  emit  a 
delightful  and  refreshing  fragrance,  not  exceed- 
ed by  the  myrtle  or  any  other  aromatic  shrub. 
From  the  berries  of  a  species  of  this  tree,  which 
grows  commonly  in  Carolina,  the  inhabitants  col- 
lect a  wax,  and  hence  it  is  called  the  candle-berry 
tree.  In  November  and  December,  when  the  ber- 
ries are  ripe,  a  man,  with  his  family,  will  remove 


30  -OPIUM. 

from  home  to  some  island,  or  sand-bank,  near  the 
sea,  where  these  berries  abound;  taking  with  them 
kettles  to  boil  the  berries  in.  He  builds  a  hut 
with  palmetto-leaves,  as  a  shelter  during  their 
stay  of  four  or  five  weeks.  He  cuts  down  the 
trees,  the  children  strip  offvthe  berries  and  throw 
them  into  the  vessels  ;  and,  on  their  being  boiled, 
oil  rises  to  the  surface,  which,  when  cold,  hardens 
to  the  consistence  of  wax.  It  is  afterwards  puri- 
fied in  other  vessels ;  and  candles  made  of  it  burn 
a  long  time,  and  yield  a  grateful  odor. 

Mr.  E.  Opium,  so  much  used  as  a  medicine 
to  allay  pain  and  occasion  sleep,  is  the  juice  ob- 
tained from  the  unripe  seed-vessels  of  a  species 
of  white  poppy.  In  manv  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
whole  fields  are  sown  with  its  seeds,  as  our's  are 
with  corn.  When  the  heads  are  nearly  ripe,  they 
are  wrounded  on  one  side  with  a  sharp  instrument, 
and  a  white  liquor  flows  out,  which  the  heat  of 
the  sun  hardens  upon  them;  this  is  the  opium  : 
it  is  collected  the  next  day,  when  fresh  wounds 
are  made  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  seed-vessel; 
but  what  comes  from  the  first  incision  is  decided- 
ly the  best.  "When  the  opium  is  collected,  it  is 
moistened  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  or  hon- 
ey, and  worked  on  a  board  until  it  has  the  con- 
sistency of  pitch,  when  it  is  formed  into  cakes  or 
rolls  for  sale.  The  tincture  of  opium,  which  is 
made  by  dissolving  it  in  spirits  of  wine,  is  called 
laudanum. 

F.  How,  papa,  is  camphor  produced? 

Mr.  JE.  Small  quantities  have  been  distilled 
from  thyme,  sage,  and  other  aromatic  plants;  but 
k  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  stems  and  roots  of 


CAMPHOR.  31 

the  camphor-tree,  a  species  of  laurel  which  grows 
in  China  and  in  the  Indian  isles.  But  I  will 
show  you  a  singular  property  it  possesses.  See ! 
1  take  a  small  piece  of  camphor,  and  place  it  on 
the  surface  of  a  basin  of  pure  water,  and  now 
look! 

E.  O,  how  curious !  It  moves  round,  and 
round,  and  round,  so  fast! — but  now  I  see  it  has 
stopped — please  tell  me  how  that  happens. 

Mr.  E.  I  merely  poured  a  single  drop  of  lav- 
ender water  into  the  basin,  which  caused  the 
motion  to  cease  ;  but  no  one  has  yet  been  able 
to  explain  how  it  is  done, 

Mrs.  E.  We  must  reserve  other  facts  of  this 
kind  to  future  times,  and  now  notice  those  secre- 
tions which  consist  chiefly  of  vapors  and  gases 
exhaled  from  flowers  'r  one  of  which,  that  of  the 
fraxinella,  will  burn  if  a  taper  be  brought  to  it. 
Several  peculiar  juices,  too,  are  prepared  by 
glands  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves. 
These  are  furnished  with  hairs  :  in  the  nettle  the 
hair  gives  the  wound,  and  then  its  poisonous  se- 
cretion is  poured  into  it.  If,  however,  the  hairs 
are  wetted  by  rain,  no  sting  is  felt,  because  they 
cannot  penetrate  the  skin  ;  and  stinging  plants 
can  also  be  handled  with  impunity  after  death,  if 
dried  ,  for  though  the  hair  may  be  able  to  wound, 
the  juice  is  no  longer  fluid,  and  cannot  flow  into 
the  puncture. 

Mr.  E.  How  amazing  is  that  power  which 
produced  vegetation  ! 

* Tho  Earth,  till  then 

Desert  and  bare,  unsightly,  unadorn'd, 

Brought  forth  the  tender  grass,  whose  verdure  clad 

Ilor  universal  face  with  pleasant  green  , 


32  THE    NETTLE. 

Then  herbs  of  every  leaf,  that  sudden  flower'd, 

Opening  their  various  colors,  and  made  gay 

Her  bosom,  smelling  sweet :  and,  these  scarce  blown, 

Forth  flourish'd  thick  the  clustering  vine,  forth  crept 

The  swelling  gourd,  up  stood  the  corny  reed, 

Embattled  in  her  field,  and  the  humble  shrub, 

And  bush  with  frizzled  hair  implicit.     Last, 

Rose,  as  in  dance,  the  stately  trees,  and  spread 

Their  branches,  hung  with  copious  fruit,  or  gemm'd 

Their  blossoms:  with  high  woods  the  hills  were  crown'd, 

With  tufts  the  valleys,  and  each  fountain  side.' 


THE  DISCOVERY. 

*  AN  Indian,  named  Hualpa,  was  one  day  pur- 
suing some  deer,  and  climbing  over  some  rocks, 
down  which  he  was  at  length  in  imminent  dan- 
ger of  falling.  To  prevent  such  an  accident  he 
caught  hold  of  a  bush ;  but  his  weight  loosened 
its  roots,  and  his  peril  was  not  diminished. 
While,  however,  he  was  holding  the  bush,  and 
looking  at  the  roots,  to  ascertain  how  far  he 
might  depend  on  them,  he  was  astonished  as  he 
cast  his  eyes  on  a  lump  of  massy  silver.  Aware 
of  the~value  of  his  discovery,  he  took  the  treas- 
ure to  his  hut,  lived  on  its  produce  some  time, 
and  repaired  to  the  same  spot  whenever  he 
wanted  a  supply.  A  neighbor  observing  Hual- 
pa's  condition  improved,  questioned  him  so  close- 
ly that  one  day  he  revealed  the  secret.  The 
two  agreed  to  share  the  produce,  and  lived  some 
time  in  social  harmony ;  but,  happening  to 
quarrel,  the  confidant  betrayed  the  secret  to  his 
master,  a  Spaniard,  residing  in  the  neighbor- 


HUALPA FERNS.  33 

hood ;  and  thus  the  mine  became  known,  and 
has  proved  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world. 
There,  my  dear/  continued  Mr.  Elwood,  '  is  a 
story  at  your  request — a  proof  that  what  is  valu- 
able is  sometimes  discovered  by  accident/ 

'  And  I  can  give  you  another,  papa/  said 
Frederick.  *  A  few  days  ago,  when  I  was  not 
thinking  of  flowers,  I  found  a  little  bunch  of 
primroses,  and  then  you  and  mamma  told  us  so 
much  about  plants,  and  their  vessels,  and  stems, 
and  roots,  and  leaves,  and  secretions,  that 
Emma  and  I  have  been  thinking  and  talking 
about  them  almost  ever  since.  And  we  shall  be 
so  glad  when  you  can  relate  to  us  more  of  their 
wonders.  Perhaps — but  I  may  be  wrong — per- 
haps you  and  mamma  could  begin  now.  Ah ! 
how  kindly  you  smile ! — I  think — yes,  I  am 
sure,  you  will.' 

'  My  dear  boy/  replied  Mr.  Elwood,  '  I  am 
delighted  to  find  you  and  your  sister  so  desirous 
to  learn  what  it  is  pleasing  to  impart.  Accord- 
ing to  your  request,  then,  we  will  give  you,  as 
opportunity  permits,  some  interesting  and  in- 
structive facts  in  reference  to  the  vegetable 
world ;  having  no  doubt  that  these  will  excite 
and  prepare  you  to  commence  a  regular  and 
methodical  course  of  study  in  after  years. 

*  I  will  begin  this  evening  with  the  humble 
orders  of  vegetation.  Among  these  are  ferns, 
which  have  what  is  called  their  fruit  arranged 
in  spots  or  lines  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  ; 
and  if  you  will  remind  me  of  it  in  one  of  our 
walks,  I  will  show  you  that  a  fern-root,  cut 
transversely,  exhibits  a  miniature  picture  of  an 
3 


34  FERNS. 

oak-tree;^  In  times  of  famine  they  were  used 
for  bread,  but  now  some  of  the  common  kinds 
are  employed  as  firing  by  the  poor,  who  also  mix 
the  ashes  with  water,  and  form  them  into  balls, 
which,  when  dried  in  the  sun,  serve  instead  of 
soap.  The  leaves,  if  cut  when  full  grown,  and 
properly  dried,  make  a  thatch  for  houses  more 
durable  than  straw;  and  of  one  root  a  sort  of 
starch  is  made  in  the  north  of  Europe.  In  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  earth  they  assume  the  form  and 
magnitude  of  trees  ;  and,  at  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Van  Dieman's  Land,  a  species  has  been 
seen,  whose  trunk  was  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
feet  high.  In  describing  their  visit  to  the  island 
of  Huahine,  Messrs.  Tyerman  and  Bennet  also 
describe  some  of  great  magnitude,  and  an  inter- 
esting purpose  to  which  others  are  applied. 
'  The  sides  of  the  mountain  were  overrun  with 
forests  of  tall  fern  and  dwarf  shrubs.  When 
we  reached  the  top,  which  may  be  calculated  at 
two  thousand  feet,  we  had  to  descend  into  a 
glen  beyond,  where  the  stream  that  supplies  the 
fall  has  its  source.  The  actual  fall  we  ascer- 
tained to  be  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Of 
course,  in  its  headlong  career,  the  rounded 
volume,  that  rolls  over  the  verge  like  molten 
crystal,  expands  into  azure  sheets,  or  darts  in 
silver  streams  on  its  middle  passage,  tumbles 
into  foam  a  little  lower,  and  resolves  into  spray 
towards  the  bottom,  so  widely  scattered  that  a 
bath  may  be  taken  under  the  effusion  without 
any  inconvenience.  The  face  of  the  crags 
down  which  it  rushes,  and  leaps,  and  spreads, 
and  sparkles  in  the  sun-beams  being  quite  black, 


PRINTING    IN    HUAH1NE.  35 

gives  intensity  of  brilliance  to  the  many-colored 
waters,  under  all  their  changes  of  form,  from  the 
torrent  above  to  the  shower  of  dew-drops  below. 
Here  we  gathered  specimens  of  the  elegant 
small  ferns,  with  which  the  native  women  im- 
press figures,  in  divers  colors,  upon  their  cloth — 
literally  a  method  of  printing,  which  is  but  one 
remove  below  the  boasted  invention  of  the 
Chinese  by  means  of  engraven  blocks,  before 
the  art  was  discovered  in  Europe.  It  is  true 
that  the  delicate  patterns  of  leaves  and  flowers, 
taken  from  living  plants,  upon  their  apparel, 
may  be  said  to  teach  these  ingenious  females 
only  so  many  letters  of  the  alphabet  of  nature  ; 
yet,  though  incapable  of  instructing  them  in  any- 
thing else,  they  do  always  remind  them  of  some 
of  her  most  exquisite  productions;  and  may 
often  revive  in  recollection  the  places  where 
such  are  to  be  found,  as  well  as  the  circumstan- 
ces under  which  particular  specimens  were 
gathered  upon  the  spot — the  weather,  the  com- 
pany, the  pleasures,  or  the  disappointments  of  the 
day  on  which  they  were  sought.  But  I  must 
not  forget  that  there  is  one  species  found  in 
North  America  called  the  sensitive  fern,*  which 
is  said  to  wither  as  soon  as  it  is  touched  by  a 
human  hand,  while  it  is  not  injured  by  the 
touch  of  other  bodies.7 

E.  That  is  very  singular,  papa;  but  I  have 
seen  several  sensitive  plants,  which  shrink  when 
anything  approaches  them,  as  if  they  were  afraid. 
Can  you  tell  us  how  this  happens  ? 

*  Onoclea  sensibilis. 


36  SENSIBILITY    OF    PLANTS. 

Mr.  E.  Some  have  thought,  my  dear,  that  as 
plants  have  a  set  of  vessels  resembling  our  veins 
and  arteries,  they  may  also  have  what  corres- 
ponds with  the  nervous  system  in  animals. 
Among  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  to 
prove  this,  certain  vegetable  poisons  which  are 
known  to  destroy  life  in  animals,  merely  by  act- 
ing on  the  nervous  system,  have  been  administer- 
ed to  plants,  and  the  effect  was,  that  the  leaves 
shrunk  or  curled  themselves  up,  afterwards  be- 
came flaccid,  and  then  in  a  few  hours  died. 

Mrs.  E.  A  plant  has  therefore,  it  is  probable, 
some  organs  with  which  we  are  at  present  unac- 
quainted ;  but  I  cannot  see  why  it  may  not  have 
nerves,  when  in  so  many  respects  it  has  a  resem- 
blance to  ourselves.  And  now,  papa,  I  will  tell 
them  a  little  about  mosses,  which,  like  lichens 
and  fungi,  whose  vessels  are  all  of  a  cellular 
form,  hive  no  vascular  system  whatever.  They 
have  roots  and  leaves  something  like  those  of  oth- 
er plants  ;  but  the  fruit  is  very  different,  for  small 
threads  generally  grow  out  of  the  bosom  of  the 
leaves  and  support  little  roundish  bodies  which 
contain  the  seeds.  .  These  capsules,  as  they  are 
called,  have  generally  a  veil,  like  a  little  extin- 
guisher ;  and  when  this  is  removed,  the  mouth  of 
the  capsule  itself,  which  sometimes  has  a  lid  be- 
sides, appears  surrounded  with  one  or  two  rows 
of  fringe,  of  great  delicacy,  and  of  amazing  regu- 
larity in  the  number  of  the  teeth  that  compose  it. 
The  mosses  are  generally  evergeens,  and  capa- 
ble of  enduring  more  cold  than  most  other  vege- 
tables. They  clothe^  the  rocks  which  rise  out  of 
masses  of  ice  in  Spitzbergen,  and  a  botanist 


MOSSES— -MUNGO    PARK.  37 

counted  above  twenty  different  kinds  in  Green- 
land, without  moving  from  the  rock  where  he 
was  seated.  After  having  become  dry  and  to  all 
appearance  withered,  and  even  after  they  have 
been  gathered  and  kept  in  a  dry  state  for  many 
years,  yet,  if  put  into  water,  every  part  of  them 
will  expand  and  become  apparently  as  fresh  and 
green  as  when  they  were  growing.  The  effect 
produced  by  the  structure  or  one  of  the  mosses 
on  the  mind  of  Mungo  Park,  in  the  horrid  wastes 
of  Africa,  I  shall  never  forget.  Frederick,  my 
love,  here  is  the  volume,  you  may  read  his  ac- 
count. 

F.  (Reads.)  f  I  saw  myself  in  the  midst  of  a 
vast  wilderness,  naked  and  alone,  surrounded  by 
savage  animals,  and  by  men  still  more  savage.  I 
was  five  hundred  miles  from  the  nearest  European 
settlement ;  I  considered  my  fate  as  certain,  and 
that  I  had  no  alternative  but  to  lie  down  and  per- 
ish. At  this  moment  the  extraordinary  beauty 
of  a  small  moss  irresistibly  caught  my  eye ;  and, 
though  the  whole  plant  was  not  larger  than  the 
top  of  one  of  my  fingers,  I  could  not  contemplate 
the  delicate  conformation  of  its  roots,  leaves,  and 
capsules,  without  admiration.  Can  that  Being, 
thought  I,  who  planted,  watered,  and  brought  to 
perfection,  in  this  obscure  part  of  the  world,  a 
thing  which  appears  of  so  small  importance,  look 
with  unconcern  upon  the  situation  and  sufferings 
of  creatures  formed  after  his  own  image  ?  Re- 
flections like  these  would  not  allow  me  to  des- 
pair :  I  started  up,  and,  disregarding  both  hun- 
ger and  fatigue,  travelled  forwards,  assured  that 
relief  was  at  hand,  and  I  was  not  disappointed/ 
3* 


38  VAILLANT — USES    OP    MOSS. 

E.  O  mamma,  that  was  delightful  indeed  ! 
Can  you  tell  us  any  of  the  uses  of  moss  ? 

Mrs.  E.  I  can,  my  dear ;  but  I  may  just  men- 
tion that  Vaillant  beheld,  amidst  the  sultry  des- 
erts of  the  same  country,  a  magnificnt  lily  grow- 
ing on  the  banks  of  a  river,  which  filled  the  air 
far  around  with  its  delicious  fragrance,  had  been 
respected  by  all  the  animals  of  the  district,  and 
seemed  defended  by  its  own  beauty.  The  sight 
awakened  in  his  bosom  greater  exultation  than 
perhaps  a  lily  ever  inspired  before  o-r  since  that 
period,  and  akin  to  that  which  his  fellow-traveller 
has  described.  In  answer  to  your  question,  how- 
ever, I  may  say,  the  mosses  are  of  great  use 
They  protect  the  roots  of  tender  plants  alike  from 
the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat;  and  there  are  ma- 
ny kinds,  which,  by  vegetating  in  the  shallow 
parts  of  ponds  and  marshes,  convert,  in  the  course 
of  time,  what  was  previously  water  and  bog  into 
useful  land  and  fertile  pastures.  Birds  employ 
these  vegetables  in  constructing  their  nests  ;  thus 
the  goldfinch  forms  its  cradle  of  fine  mosses  and 
lichens,  collected  from  the  apple  or  the  pear  tree, 
and  then  lines  it  with  the  down  of  thistles, 

E.  Oh,  mamma  !  I  can  tell  you  such  a  pretty 
story,  which  I  read  the  other  day,  about  a  little 
wren.  She  made  a  nest  inside  a  cow-shed,  and 
it  was  so  neat ! — and  what  do  you  think  she  did 
to  hide  the  place  ?  Oh,  the  little  cunning  thing  ! 
She  hung  a  ragged  piece  of  moss  on  the  straw- 
work,  and  shut  out  the  opening  ;  nor  would  this 
have  been  known,  had  she  not  popped  out  one 
day,  so  that  a  gentleman  saw  her. 

Mrs.  E.  That  was  certainly  very  clever,  Em- 


USES    OF    MOSS.  39 

ma  ;  but  now  I  will  tell  you  what  service  these 
apparently  insignificant  plants  render  to  men. 
Of  the  golden  maiden-hair,*  one  of  the  largest 
species,  the  Laplanders  make  good  beds,  by  cut- 
ting thick  layers  of  it,  so  that  one  serves  as  a 
mattress,  and  the  other  as  a  coverlet ;  and  on 
such  a  bed  Linnaeus  often  slept  when  travelling 
amonor  that  people.  These  beds  are  elastic,  so 
that  they  may  be  rolled  up  into  a  parcel  and  car- 
ried under  a  man's  arm ;  nor  do  they  grow  hard 
by  pressure,  for  when  they  lose  a  part  of  their 
elasticity  by  long  use,  it  can  soon  be  restored  by 
dipping  them  in  water.  Of  another  kind,  which 
is  particularly  soft,  like  a  thick  fur  or  fleece,  the 
Lapland  women  make  great  use.  They  wrap 
their  infants  in  it,  without  any  other  clothing, 
and  place  them  in  leathern  cradles,  lined  with 
the  moss ;  and  in  these  soft  and  warm  nests  the 
babes,  like  little  birds,  are  completely  defended 
from  the  cold.  The  Greenlanders  use  this  moss 
as  tinder,  and  for  wicks  to  their  lamps.  Another 
species-ought  aho  to  be  particularly  mentioned: 
it  is  the  rein-deer  moss,  t  of  a  whitish  color, 
which  grows  in  Lapland  to  the  height  of  at  least 
a  foot,  covering  the  ground  like  snow.  This  is 
the  most  useful  vegetable  that  is  found  through- 
out that  country  ;  for  it  is  the  principal  food  of 
the  rein-deer,  without  which  valuable  creature 
the  inhabitants  could  scarcely  exist.  The  rein- 
deer draws  them  in  sledges  over  countries  buried 
in  snow  ;  its  flesh  and  milk  affords  them  nourish- 
ment, its  skin  clothing,  and  even  its  bones  and 
sinews  are  made  into  several  useful  articles. 

*  Polytrichum  commune.         t  Lichen  rangiferinua. 


40  INSTINCT    OP    THE    REIN-DEER. 

Mr.  E.  De  Broke  thus  illustrates  the  instinct 
with  which  the  rein-deer  discovers  its  means  of 
subsistence  :  '  The  flatness  of  the  country  in- 
creased as  we  proceeded,  and  at  times  it  was 
even  difficult  to  tell  whether  we  were  moving  on 
land  or  water,  from  the  uniformity  of  the  white 
surface  around  us.  In  this  respect,  our  deer 
were  far  better  judges  than  ourselves ;  as,  though 
there  might  be  a  depth  of  some  feet  of  snow 
above  the  ice,  wherever  we  stopped  for  a  few 
minutes  upon  any  lake,  in  no  one  instance  did 
they  attempt  to  commence  their  usual  search 
after  their  food ;  yet,  when  upon  land,  their 
natural  quickness  of  smell  enabled  them  to 
ascertain,  with  almost  unerring  certainty,  wheth- 
er there  was  any  moss  growing  beneath  them  or 
not.  By  the  fineness  of  this  sense  of  the  animal, 
the  Laplanders  are  chiefly  guided  in  fixing  their 
different  winter-quarters;  never  remaining  in 
those  parts  which  they  know  with  certainty  pro- 
duce but  little  moss,  from  the  difference  of  their 
deer,  and  the  few  attempts  made  by  them  to 
remove  the  snow.' 

F.  In  that  part  of  the  earth  I  should  think 
they  have  but  few  plants. 

Mrs.  E.  The  frozen  zone  contains  few 
species;  but  as,  in  the  short  career  of  the  Polar 
summer,  vegetation  is  very  rapid,  these  compre- 
hend a  greater  number  of  individuals  than  is 
commonly  imagined.  The  verdure  of  that  sea- 
son is  confined  to  the  hills  which  are  exposed  to 
the  south ;  and,  though  of  short  duration,  it  is 
sometimes  very  brilliant.  Beside  mosses  and 
lichens,  there  are  ferns,  creeping  plants,  and 


LICHENS ORIGIN   OF    SOILS.  41 

various  bushes  with  berries — the  resources  and 
luxuries  of  Siberia  and  Lapland.  No  where 
else  are  the  fruits  more  abundant,  or  possessed 
of  a  finer  flavor.  The  frozen  zone  also  admits 
of  some  trees,  particularly  the  birch  and  willow ; 
but  they  always  remain  dwarfs,  never  growing 
higher  than  one  or  two  feet.  But  Lapland  pro- 
duces rye  and  leguminous  plants,  and  would,  it 
is  said,  have  supported  fine  forests,  had  not  an 
unwise  economy  procured  their  destruction. 

F.  Papa,  what  are  lichens,  which  mamma 
mentioned  a  little  while  ago  ? 

Mr.  E.  They  are  a  very  numerous  race, 
which  commonly  grow  in  fleshy  or  leather -like 
patches,  on  the  stems  of  trees,  rocks,  old  build- 
ings, palings,  &c. ;  and  of  which  those  that 
grow  like  rough,  yellow,  and  bluish  crusts, 
upon  the  oid  gooseberry-bushes  and  apple-trees 
in  the  garden,  are  some  of  the  most  common 
species.  They  thrive  in  all  kinds  of  soil,  and  in 
every  climate.  Many  of  them  are  useful  in  com- 
mencing the  operations  of  nature  in  the  growth 
of  vegetables  on  the  barest  rocks,  receiving  no 
other  support  than  what  the  air  and  rain  afford 
them.  As  they  decay,  they  are  changed  into  a 
very  fine  mould,  which  nourishes  other  species  ; 
these,  in  their  turn,  become  food  for  mosses, 
and  they  likewise  rot;  and,  in  course  of  time,  a 
soil  is  formed  from  the  refuse  of  the  whole, 
capable  of  maintaining  plants,  and  even  trees. 
Several  different  kinds  of  lichen  afford  beautiful 
dyes ;  and  one  of  them,  called  dyer's  lichen,* 

*  Lichen  rocella. 


42  SEA-WEED. 

which  communicates  to  silks  and  wool  various 
shades  of  purple  and  crimson,  is  particularly  val- 
uable. This  plant,  which  is  brought  chiefly 
from  the  Archipelago  and  the  Canary  Islands,  is 
of  great  importance  as  an  article  of  commerce; 
and,  when  scarce,  has  been  sold  for  even  five 
thousand  dollars  a  ton ! 

E.  Can  you  tell  us  something  about  sea-weed, 
papa?  When  we  were  last  at  Scarborough,  I 
found  such  quantities,  of  different  forms,  and 
some  very  beautiful  indeed ! 

Mr.  E.  Many  things  respecting  these  and 
similar  plants,  my  dear,  are  exceedingly  inter- 
esting. Their  roots  serve  only  to  fasten  them  to 
the  bottom ;  many  of  them  float  about  in  the 
water,  without  being  attached  to  any  solid  body, 
and  they  imbibe  all  their  nourishment  through 
their  surface.  In  the  islands  of  Jura  and  Skye, 
the  sea-mack*  is  often  used  as  winter  food  for 
the  cattle,  which  regularly  go  down  to  the 
shores,  when  the  tide  is  out,  to  eat  it ;  and  even 
the  deer  come  from  the  mountains  to  feed  on  it. 
The  inhabitants  of  Gothland,  in  Sweden,  boil  it, 
mix  it  with  meal,  and  use  it  as  food  for  their 
hogs;  in  Scandinavia,  the  poor  people  thatch 
their  cottages  with  it ;  and  it  assists  the  prepara- 
tion of  kelp,  a  kind  of  salt,  and  a  principal 
ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  If  the 
leaves  of  this  plant  receive  a  wound  while  grow- 
ing, abundance  of  young  shoots  are  thrown  out 
from  the  injured  part;  and  even  if  a  hole  or  rent 
be  made  in  the  middle  of  a  leaf,  a,  new  one  will 

*  Fucus  vesiculosus. 


USES    OP   SEA-WEED.  43 

spring  from  each  side  of  it.  In  Scotland,  the 
sea-tangle*  and  the  dulset  are  used  as  food ; 
and  of  the  stems  of  the  former  the  handles  of 
knives  are  sometimes  made.  For  this  purpose, 
a  thick  stem  is  chosen,  and  cut  into  pieces  about 
four  inches  long ;  the  hilts  of  the  knives  are 
stuck  into  these  while  fresh,  and,  as  the  stern 
dries,  it  contracts  and  hardens  firmly  around 
them,  and,  when  tipped  with  metal,  can  scarce- 
ly be  distinguished  from  horn.  Another  kindj 
is  employed  in  China  as  glue  and  gum-arabic 
are  with  us ;  and  with  it  large  sheets  of  paper 
are  coated,  in  order  to  make  them  transparent, 
and  to  prepare  them  for  lanterns  and  windows, 
instead  of  glass.  Windows  are  sometimes  made 
of  slips  of  bamboo,  which  are  crossed,  and  the 
spaces  between  are  filled  up  with  thin  sheets 
formed  of  a  glue  made  by  dissolving  the  plant  in 
warm  water,  which  stiffens  as  it  cools.  Another^ 
is  highly  esteemed  as  a  luxury  in  the  east.  Of 
this,  the  swallows'  nests  I  mentioned  ||  as  edible 
are  said  to  be  made.  Some  of  the  larger  kinds 
of  sea-weed  are  truly  wonderful,  on  account  of 
their  magnitude,  and  rapidity  of  their  growth. 
One  of  themU  is  said  to  extend  often  to  the  length 
of  a  thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  feet;  and  it 
grows  in  such  profusion,  that  the  masses  of  it  re- 
semble islands. 

Mrs.  E.  An  immense  belt  of  sea  is  frequently 
covered  over  with  a  vegetable  production,**  which 
sometimes  appears  in  long  ridges,  with  furrows 

*  Fucus  digitatus.  t  Fucus  palmatus.  t  Fucus 
tenax.  §  Fucus  lichenoides.  ||  See  '  Art  in  Na- 
ture,' page  247.  U  Fucus  giganteus.  **  Fucus  natans. 


44  SINGULAR   MARINE   PRODUCTION. 

between,  and  sometimes  in  detached  portions. 
To  this  particular  part  of  the  Atlantic,  the  Span- 
iards and  Portuguese  have  given  the  name  of 
'  the  weedy  sea.'  A  specimen  of  this  vegetable 
is  described  to  us  as  consisting  of  ;one  long,  fi- 
brous stem,  from  which  smaller  lateral  ones  pro- 
ceed. These  were  covered  with  strap-shaped 
leaves;  and  at  the  angle  made  by  the  leaves  and 
stem  were  small  pods,  not  quite  so  large  as  peas, 
on  short  foot-stalks,  and  generally  two  together. 
They  contained  no  seeds,  or  other  substance,  and 
appeared  to  be  merely  air-vessels,  to  enable  the 
plant  to  float  on  the  surface.  Several  of  them 
were  encased  in  a  beautiful  coraline  substance. 
About  it  were  many  of  the  little  dwellers  in  the 
sea,  and  among  them  were  shrimps,  and  a  very 
pretty  species  of  small  crab,  with  a  bright  mot- 
tled tortoise-shell,  and  vivid  green  eyes.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  this  plant  has  no  root,  and 
is  produced  as  it  floats. 

The  sea  of  Japan  also  brings  to  the  shores  im- 
mense floating  meadows  of  marine  plants ;  so 
that  the  anxious  mariner  often  apprehends  that 
his  vessel  is  entangled  by  a  new  land,  seeming 
to  rise  up  from  the  waters,  which  it  conceals  from 
view. 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  lich- 
ens, or  aerial  algae,  never  grow  under  water, 
while  the  fuci,  or  aquatic  algae,  never  grow  out 
of  water ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  many 
other  plants,  some  of  which  are,  as  it  were,  the 
living  boundaries  of  land  and  sea.  Thus  the 
samphire  *  never  grows  but  on  the  sea-shore,  and 

*  Crithmum  Maritimum. 


THE    SHIPWRECKED    MARINERS.  45 

yet  is  never  found  within  reach  of  the  waves,  or 
rather,  is  never  so  near  as  to  be  wholly  covered 
by  the  waters.  A  knowledge  of  this  was  on  one 
occasion  very  consolatory.  A  vessel  was  driven 
on  shore  near  Beachy  Head,  in  1821,  and  the 
whole  of  the  crew  were  washed  overboard.  Four 
escaped  from  the  wreck,  but  only  as  they  thought 
to  suffer  a  more  lingering  death  ;  for,  having  in 
the  darkness  of  the  night  been  cast  upon  the 
breakers,  they  found  when  they  had  climbed  up 
the  highest  of  these  low  rocks,  that  the  waves 
were  rapidly  advancing ;  and  they  doubted  not 
that,  when  the  tide  attained  its  height,  the  whole 
range  would  be  entirely  covered  with  water. 
Unable  to  see  anything  beyond  the  spot  on  which 
they  stood,  and  followed  by  the  infuriated  waves, 
which  at  length  dashed  upon  them,  the  hope  of 
life  was  quenched,  and,  in  the  agony  of  despair, 
they  were  debating  whether  they  should  not 
throw  themselves  on  the  mercy  of  the  waters, 
when  one  of  them,  to  hold  himself  more  firmly 
to  the  rock,  grasped  a  weed,  which,  even  wet  as 
it  was,  he  well  knew,  as  a  flash  of  lightning  af- 
forded a  momentary  glance,  was  a  sort  of  sam- 
phire, and  he  recollected  that  it  never  grows  un- 
der water.  That  plant  instantly  became  to  these 
miserable  men  a  messenger  of  mercy  ;  and  they 
felt  assured  that  the  voice  of  God  would  say  to 
the  waste  of  waters,  *  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come, 
but  no  further.'  And  so  it  was.  In  the  morn- 
ing they  were  seen  from  the  cliffs,  and  conveyed 
safely  to  the  shore.  Thus  an  acquaintance  with 
this  single  fact  was  to  them  of  the  greatest  im- 
4 


46  FUNGI. 

portance.  Who  can  tell,  my  dears,  how  valuable 
to  you  may  be  the  information  you  now  receive  ? 

F.  It  is  very  valuable  now,  papa  :  we  '11  try 
and  learn  something  every  day,  and  then  how 
much  we  shall  know  by  and  by ! 

Mr.  E.  Everything  in  the  natural  world,  my 
love,  demands  attention  ;  but  the  more  know- 
ledge you  acquire,  the  less  will  you  seem  to  know. 
In  the  minute,  as  well  as  the  vast,  the  footsteps 
of  God  may  be  perceived.  We  may  just  advert, 
at  the  close  of  the  conversation,  to  the  fungi, 
which  are  a  very  singular  tribe.  They  have, 
properly,  no  leaves  ;  their  whole  substance  being 
fleshy,  generally  of  quick  growth  and  short  du- 
ration, and  of  various  degrees  of  firmness,  from 
a  watery  pulp  to  a  leathery  or  even  woody  tex- 
ture. The  only  kind  we  venture  to  eat  is  the 
common  mushroom,*  which  is  often  cultivated  in 
hot-beds,  and  grows  wild  in  parks  and  fields  that 
have  been  long  undisturbed  by  the  plough.  In 
September,  a  great  variety  of  fungi  flourish,  of 
every  size,  shade,  and  hue,  according  to  their 
species  and  situation,  from  the  slender  scarlet  or 
yellow  filament  on  some  decaying  stump,  '  to  the 
bold,  broad  agaric  of  a  foot  in  height  and  diame- 
ter, standing  in  the  forest  as  a  fitting  table  for 
Oberon,  the  king  of  the  fairies.  No  production 
of  nature  but  is  endowed  with  some  portiou  of 
that  beauty  so  lavishly  diffused  through  creation ; 
and  these  humble  and  despised  vegetables,  which 
the  clown  kicks  away  with  his  foot,  will  certain- 
ly appear  to  an  attentive  eye  not  destitute  of  their 

*  Agaricus  Campestris. 


BEAUTIES    OF    FUNGI.  47 

share.  In  roaming  the  ancient  wilds  of  Sher- 
wood forest,  in  the  autumn  of  1827,  says  William 
Howitt,  I  was  particularly  struck  with  their  va- 
rying character  ;  some  broad,  tabular,  and  flaked 
with  brown ;  some  in  the  shade  of  trees  of  a 
pearly  whiteness,  others  of  a  brilliant  rose-color ; 
some  whose  delicate  surfaces  were  studded  with 
dark  embossments ;  some  fashioned  like  a  Chi- 
nese parasol ;  others  gibbous  and  grotesque  ;  the 
massy  puff-ball,  which  before  it  becomes  dry  has 
been  known  to  weigh  several  pounds ;  the  pesti- 
lent-scented and  ginger  mushrooms,  for  all  the 
world  the  exact  resemblance  of  a  Simnel-cake.J 
Cowper  says, 

*  The  common,  overgrown  with  fern,  and  rough 
With  prick'ly  gorse,  that,  shapeless,  and  deformed, 
And  dangerous  to  the  touch,  has  jet  its  bloom, 
And  decks  itself  with  ornaments  of  gold, 
Yields  no  unpleasing  ramble  ;  thero  the  turf 
Smells  fresh,  and  rich,  in  odorif'rous  herbs, 
And  fungous  fruits  of  earth,  regales  the  sense 
With  luxury  of  unexpected  eweets.J 

Mrs.  E.  Mr.  Knapp,  too,  has  written  beauti- 
fully on  the  same  topic,  '  No  country/  he  re- 
marks, '  Is,  I  believe,  more  favorable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  most  of  the  agarics  than  Monmouth, 
with  its  deep  dark  woods,  and  alpine  downs. 
Travellers  tell  us  of  the  splendor  of  this  race  in 
the  jungles  of  Madagascar,  but  nothing  surely 
can  exceed  the  beauty  of  some  old  copse  in  Mon- 
mouthshire, deep  in  the  valley,  calm,  serene, 
shaded  by  the  pensile,  elegant,  autumnal-tinted 
sprays  of  the  birch  ;  the  ground  enamelled  with 
every  colored  agaric,  from  the  deep  scarlet  to 
pallid  white,  the  gentle  grey,  and  sober  brown, 


48  DRY-ROT. 

and  all  their  intermediate  shadings.'  But  these 
fragile  children  of  the  earth  are  beauties  of  an 
hour. 

'  Transient  as  the  morning  dew, 
They  glitter  and  exhale.' 

F.  But,  mamma,  if  these  plants  only  spring  up 
and  die,  of  what  use  can  they  be  ? 

Mrs.  jEJ.  Vegetation,  my  dear,  is  often  exuber- 
ant ;  it  is  poured  with  unceasing  prodigality  from 
the  lap  of  the  earth,  and  returned  thither,  season 
by  season,  without  being,  in  many  instances, 
either  provision  for  brute  or  human  life  ;  but  nev- 
er let  us  imagine,  in  this  or  any  similar  case,  that 
no  purpose  is  answered.  It  appears,  indeed,  to 
be  an  ordinance  of  nature,  that  all  created  things 
must  have  an  end.  This  takes  place  by  various 
means ;  slow  and  scarcely  perceptible  in  some 
instances,  but  operative  in  all.  Thus  vegetating 
substances  often  effect  the  decomposition  of  plants 
and  of  trees.  The  dry-rot  in  wood,  as  it  is  call- 
ed, is  a  decay  occasioned  by  a  peculiar  vegeta- 
ble of  the  fungus  kind,  which  possesses  the  pow- 
er of  destroying  the  wood  to  which  it  adheres, 
and  from  which  it  derives  its  nourishment.  It  is 
originated  and  increased,  like  other  vegetables, 
by  seed.  The  seeds,  which  are  extremely  mi- 
nute, are  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  tree,  or 
lodged  in  the  cavities  of  its  branches.  They  re- 
quire, in  order  to  make  them  vegetate,  a  suita- 
ble soil  and  situation  :  the  former  is  wood  rather 
damp,  and  the  latter  is  stagnant  air  ;  aud,  wher- 
ever they  have  these,  they  readily  spring  and  lux- 
uriantly flourish.  Thus  these  and  other  para- 


THE  SACCHARINE  FERMENTATIONS.  49 

sites  carry  on  the  work  of  dissolution ;  and  we 
may  fairly  conclude  that  '  the  constant  renewal 
and  decomposition  of  plants  in  all  their  curious 
and  exquisite  forms  of  blade  and  stalk,  of  leaf, 
flower,  and  seed  —  from  the  moss  on  the  crag  to 
the  noble  bread-fruit  tree  —  has  been  preparing, 
through  ages  past,  a  soil  in  the  desert,  of  which 
the  produce,  through  ages  to  come,  shall  nourish 
a  numerous  and  happy  population,  whose  indus- 
try and  wants,  as  they  multiply  on  the  earth, 
shall  lead  them  alike  to -cultivate  the  deep  de- 
clivities of  the  mountains,  and  clear  the  impervi- 
ous fastnesses  of  the  forests  for  food  and  for  room 
to  dwell  in.' 

Mr.  E.  I  may  now  state  what  you  will  deem 
very  extraordinary  :  vegetables  pass  through  cer- 
tain changes  before  they  arrive  at  this  state  of  pu- 
trefaction ;  and  of  these  we  avail  ourselves  for 
important  purposes.  The  decomposition  of  veg- 
etables is  always  attended  by  a  violent  internal 
motion,  produced  by  the  disunion  of  some  parti- 
cles and  the  combination  of  others ;  and  this  is 
called  fermentation ;  and,  as  there  are  several 
periods  at  which  this  process  stops,  so  means  may 
be  used  to  prevent  it  going  forward,  and  to  se- 
cure to  us  the  new  combination.  The  fermenta- 
tions, to  which  water  and  a  certain  degree  of 
heat  are  necessary,  derive  their  names  from  their 
principal  products.  One  is  called  saccharine^ 
because  its  produce  is  sugar,  and  there  is  a  re- 
semblance to  this  process  in  the  ripening  of 
fruits,  and  in  the  first  stage  of  vegetation.  The 
seed,  when  buried  in  the  earth,  with  a  certain 
degree  of  moisture  and  of  heat,  absorbs  water. 


50  FERMENTATIONS. 

which  causes  it  to  expand,  separates  its  particles, 
and  produces  sugar  :  the  substance  of  the  seed 
is  thus  softened,  sweetened,  and  changed  into  a 
kind  of  white  milky  pulp,  fit  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  little  plant. 

F.  And  what  is  the  next  fermentation,  papa  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  the  vinous,  so  called  because  the 
produce  is  wine.  To  this  the  saccharine  fer- 
mentation is  extremely  favorable,  if  not  absolute- 
ly essential ;  so  that,  if  sugar  be  not  formed 
during  the  life  of  the  plant,  the  saccharine  fer- 
mentation must  be  artificially  produced  before 
that  which  is  vinous  can  take  place.  Thus 
barley  does  not  yield  sugar  until  it  is  made  into 
malt ;  on  this  conversion  taking  place,  it  is  pre- 
pared to  yield  what  may  be  called  the  wine  of 
grain,  just  as  wine  is  the  product  of  the  fermen- 
tation of  grapes  or  other  fruits.  The  third  fer- 
mentation is  the  acetous,  so  denominated  because 
it  changes  wine  into  vinegar.  A  substance 
which  has  undergone  a  fermentation,  will  pro- 
duce it  in  one  that  can  pass  through  that  pro- 
cess. Thus  yeast,  which  is  a  product  of  the  fer- 
mentation of  beer,  is  used  to  excite  and  hasten 
the  fermentation  of  malt,  and  also  that  of  paste 
which  is  to  be  made  into  bread.  This  is  usually 
classed  among  the  acetous  fermentations;  when 
bread  is  good,  the  process  only  takes  a  single 
step,  but  when  it  goes  beyond  this,  the  bread  is 
sour.  The  last  is  the  putrid  fermentation,  by 
which  organized  bodies  are  reduced  to  their 
simplest  elements. 

JE.  How  extraordinary,  papa !  But  we,  you 
know,  hare  several  things  on  the  mantel-piece, 


FOSSIL-WOOD,    PEAT,    AND   TURF.  51 

which  look  something  like  pieces  of  wood,  and 
yet  they  are  heavy  as  stones  —  what  are  they? 

Mr.  E.  They  are  sometimes  called  petrified 
vegetables  ;  but  this  is  an  error.  If  a  vegetable 
is  buried  under  water,  or  in  wet  earth,  it  will  be 
slowly  and  gradually  dissolved ;  and,  as  each 
successive  particle  is  destroyed,  it  will  be  replac- 
ed by  a  particle  of  siliceous  or  flinty  earth,  con- 
veyed thither  by  the  water;  and  thus,  in  the 
course  of  time,  the  vegetable  will  appear  as  if  it 
were  changed  to  stone.  It  is  so  with  animal  as 
well  as  vegetable  substances.  Sometimes  their 
entire  dissolution  is  prevented,  as  when  vegeta- 
bles are  buried  in  the  sea  or  the  earth,  where 
the  process  cannot  advance  for  want  of  air. 
They  are  then  subject  to  a  peculiar  change,  and 
become  bitumens ;  as  jet,  which  is  hard  and  often 
used  for  ornaments ;  and  coal,  to  which  the 
animal  and  mineral  kingdoms  seem  also  to  con- 
tribute. What  changes  take  place !  The  cele- 
brated Regent  diamond  which  was  set  in  the 
handle  of  the  late  Emperor  Napoleon's  sword  of 
state,  is  now  valued  at  $1,200,000,  although  it 
weighs  but  an  ounce  and  an  eighth,  and  was 
originally  purchased  for  much  less  by  Thomas 
Pitt,  grandfather  of  the  great  Earl  of  Chatham, 
while  governor  of  Madras.  Yet  this  precious 
gem  is  no  more  than  a  piece  of  charcoal. 

Fossil- wood,  peat,  and  turf,  are  composed  of 
woods  and  roots  of  shrubs  which  are  partly  dis- 
solved by  moisture  under  ground,  and  yet  in 
some  degree  preserve  their  appearance.  Heathy 
countries  supply  the  latter  abundantly;  and 
thus  fuel  is  provided  for  the  poor^ 


52  THE    SOUL. 

Mrs.  E.  I  will  conclude  the  conversation  with 
one  suggestion;  there  are  some  respects  in 
which  there  is  a  resemblance  between  our  struc- 
ture and  that  of  vegetables  —  like  us,  too,  they 
live  and  die ;  but  between  us  there  is  still  an 
immense  space.  Well  may  it  be  said  : 

'  Am  I  but  what  I  seem,  mere  flesh  and  blood, 
A  branching  channel  with  a  mazy  flood  ? 
The  purple  stream  that  through  my  vessels  glides, 
Dull  and  unconscious  flows,  like  common  tides; 
The  pipes,  through  which  the  circling  juices  stray, 
Are  not  that  thinking  I,  no  more  than  they  .- 
This  frame,  compacted  with  transcendent  skill, 
Of  moving  joints,  obedient  to  my  will ; 
Nursed  from  the  fruitful  glebe,  like  yonder  tree, 
Waxes  and  wastes — I  call  it  not  wine,  but  me. 
New  matter  still  the  mouldering  mass  sustains  ; 
The  mansion  changed,  the  tenant  still  remains  j 
And  from  the  fleeting  stream  repaired  by  food, 
Distinct  as  is  the  swimmer  from  the  flood,' 

Yes,  '  there  is  a  spirit  in  man,  and  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  Almighty  giveth  him  understand- 
ing/ This  gift  constitutes  him  the  only  being, 
through  the  whole  range  of  the  visible  creation, 
who  is  able  to  contemplate  the  character  and 
works  of  the  Almighty  and  Supreme  Artificer, 
The  human  soul  is  also  immortal,  and  capable 
of  eternal  progression ;  and  it  should  be  with 
you  and  me,  my  dears,  our  great  end,  in  this 
brief  and  chequered  life,  to  prepare  for  that  which 
is  glorious  and  eternal, 


HEATHS GRASS.  53 


THE  WALK. 

THEY  had  just  gone  through  the  green  lane  — 
passed  by  the  pretty  ivy- covered  lodge  —  and 
crossed  the  stile  conducting  to  the  meadows  — 
when  Mr.  Elwood  quoted  the  remark  to  his  chil- 
dren, that  there  would  be  more  attentive  observ- 
ers of  nature  if  the  spider  spun  threads  of  gold, 
or  if  the  lobster  contained  pearls.  '  And  yet/ 
he  added,  '  there  is  not  a  spot  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  from  whence  valuable  knowledge  may 
not  be  derived  —  knowledge  with  which  gold  and 
pearls  are  not  to  be  compared. 

1  What  a  noble  fence  is  that,  though  far  infe- 
rior to  the  one  of  which  Evelyn  so  enthusiasti- 
cally said,  "  Is  there  under  heaven  a  more  glo- 
rious and  refreshing  object  of  the  kind  than  an 
impregnable  hedge,  of  about  four  hundred  feet 
in  length,  nine  feet  high,  and  five  in  diameter, 
which  I  can  show  in  my  now  ruined  gardens  at 
Say's  Court,  at  any  time  of  the  year  —  glittering 
with  its  armed  and  varnished  leaves,  the  taller 
standards,  at  orderly  distances,  blushing  with 
their  natural  coral !" 

1  Heaths,  too,  may  be  often  observed  in  abun- 
dance :  some  present  us  with  little  wax-like 
flowers,  others  with  pendent  pearls :  some  are 
garnished  with  coralline  beads,  whilst  others 
seem  to  mimic  the  golden  trumpet,  or  tempting 
berries,  or  porcelain  of  bell  or  bottle  shape : 
some  remind  us  of  Lilliputian  trees,  bedecked 
with  Turkish  turban  in  minature :  some  have 
their  slender  spray  hung  with  globes  like  alabas- 


54  GRASSES. 

ter,  or  flowers  of  the  cowslip  form :  —  nor  are 
their  colors  less  varied  than  their  shape;  whilst 
the  foliage  is  equally  beautiful  in  its  apparent 
imitation  of  all  the  mountainous  trees,  from  the 
Scottish  fir  to  Lebanon's  boasted  cedar,  through 
all  the  tribe  of  pine,  spruce,  larch,  tamarisk, 
juniper,  arbor  vitse,  mournful  cypress,  and  funer- 
al yew. 

'  Arid  how  delightful  are  these  meadows  and 
pastures !  Every  single  panicle  bears  many  a 
distinct  flower,  each  part  of  which  is  as  perfect 
as  the  lovely  rose,  the  splendid  tulip,  or  the 
majestic  lily.  Food,  clothing,  conveyance  from 
place  to  place,  and  a  thousand  other  advantages, 
all  depend  on  the  produce  of  the  fields. 

'  The  grass  of  mountains  is  also  remarkable. 
Frequently  covered  with  mists,  it  remains  green 
throughout  the  summer,  resembling  our  lawns, 
and  yielding  delicious  pasture  for  cattle  when 
the  meadows  in  the  valleys  and  plains  are  burnt 
up.  The  matted  roots  of  the  grasses  of  the 
mountains  of  Switzerland  and  the  Alps  are 
extremely  useful  in  preventing  the  surface  of  the 
soil  from  being  washed  down  by  rains ;  for  the 
meshes  of  the  net-work  which  they  form  confine 
the  earth  and  retain  it,  as  it  were,  in  a  basket, 
on  the  surface  of  the  declivity.  Were  the  sides 
of  mountains  to  be  tilled,  it  would  endanger 
them  :  massive  as  they  are,  they  are  upheld  by 
some  of  the  smallest  of  the  vegetable  race. 
Remove  the  surface  on  which  those  grasses  take 
root,  and  another  is  in  peril,  and  thus  one  after 
another  being  washed  down,  the  mighty  moun- 
tain will  disappear.' 


PROVIDENCE.  55 

E.  Well,  papa,  I  never  heard  that  before. 
How  wonderful!  Little  worms  form  islands; 
and  the  grass,  the  tender  grass,  sustains  moun- 
tains ! 

Mr.  E.  It  may  surprise  you,  too,  my  dears,  when 
I  say,  that  the  various  kinds  of  corn  belong  to 
the  family  of  the  grasses.  But  mark  their  whole 
appearance ;  you  know  grasses  or  corn  at  first 
sight,  by  their  blades,  from  all  other  plants  that 
grow  near  them.  They  are  distinguished  by  a 
simple  straight,  unbranched  stalk,  hollow  and 
jointed,  commonly  called  a  straw,  with  long, 
narrow,  tapering  leaves,  placed  at  each  knob  or 
joint  of  it,  and  sheathing  or  enclosing  it,  as  if  by 
way  of  support ;  their  ears  or  heads  consist  of 
husks,  each  generally  composed  of  two  valves, 
which  form  the  calyx  or  cup,  and  within  this 
what  may  be  termed  the  blossom,  which  is  also 
a  husk  of  two  valves,  dry  and  shining.  These 
minute  flowers  are  also  furnished  with  a  honey- 
cup.  Each  seed  is  enclosed  either  by  the  blos- 
som or  calyx.  As  they  become  ripe  the  husks 
open,  and,  if  not  timely  gathered,  the  seeds  fall 
to  the  ground,  which  is  one  of  the  many  means 
used  for  the  increase  of  vegetables.  And  how 
dreary  would  this  earth  be  were  it  destitute  of  its 
verdant  covering  —  so  soft  to  the  feet,  and  so 
refreshing  to  the  eye !  Still  it  is  the  prey  of 
almost  every  animal  that  roams  over  it  —  beasts, 
birds,  and  insects  banquet  here  with  delight; 
but  such  is  the  wisdom  and  beneficence  of  Provi- 
dence, that  the  more  the  leaves  are  cropped  the 
faster  do  the  roots  increase  ;  and,  what  is  still 
more  wonderful,  the  animals  that  browse  on 


56  DEFENCE    OF   A  PEA. 

grasses,  though  left  at  full  liberty  in  the  pasture, 
leave  the  straws  which  support  the  flower  and  the 
seed  untouched  ;  and  those  species  which  flour- 
ish on  the  tops  of  mountains,  where  the  summer 
heats  are  not  sufficient  to  bring  their  seeds  to 
perfection,  are  generally  increased  by  the  root, 
or  winter-buds,  and  do  not  depend  on  the  seed 
for  increase.  A  multitude  of  similar  instances 
might  be  mentioned. 

F.  I  remember,  papa,  you  told  me  once  of  the 
care  which  is  taken  of  a  pea.  I  should  like  you 
to  describe  it  again,  and  then  Emma  will  hear  it 
too. 

Mr.  E.  The  corolla  is  formed  of  four  petals  : 
the  first  is  broad  and  large,  covering  the  others 
as  a  defence  and  shelter  from  the  injuries  of  the 
weather  :  it  is  called  the  standard  or  banner,  and 
it  is  inserted  deeply  on  each  side,  that  it  may  not 
easily  be  driven  out  of  its  place  by  the  wind. 
The  side-petals,  or  wings,  protect  the  sides  of  the 
flower  ;  and,  when  these  are  taken  off,  you  see 
the  keel,  which  is  so  called  because  it  is  some- 
thing like  the  bottom  of  a  boat,  which  encloses 
and  preserves  the  centre  of  the  flower  from  harm, 
and  is  most  curiously  and  delicately  constructed. 
If,  too,  you  compare  the  pod  of  a  pea  and  that  of 
a  stock,  you  will  see  that  the  foot-stalk,  which 
supports  the  flower,  is  slender,  and  easily  moved 
about  by  the  wind ;  but,  in  wet  and  stormy  wea- 
ther, the  pea  turns  its  back  to  the  storm,  whilst 
the  banner  enfolds  the  wings,  by  closing  about 
them,  and  partly  covers  them.  The  same  office 
is  performed  by  the  keel,  containing  the  essential 
parts  of  the  fructification  :  thus  is  this  flower  cu- 


THE    CEKEALIA.  57 

riously  protected  from  the  rain  and  wind;  and, 
when  fair  weather  returns,  it  changes  its  posi- 
tion, as  if  sensible  of  the  alteration,  expands  its 
wings,  and  erects  its  standard  as  before.  The 
means  employed,  for  the  preservation  of  plants 
are  wonderful  indeed ;  but  there  is  especial 
security  for  those  which  nourish  men  and  ani- 
mals. 

E.  I  am  glad,  papa,  Frederic  thought  of  the 
pea,  and  you  are  very  kind  to  describe  it  again ; 
but  you  were  going  to  mention,  I  think,  some- 
thing else. 

Mr.  E.  The  corn,  or  grain-bearing  plants  are 
styled  the  cerealia,  from  Ceres,  the  goddess  of 
corn.  That  one,  however,  on  which  any  people 
chiefly  depend  for  their  food  is  called  corn  by 
them ;  as  wheat  is  in  England,  oats  in  the  north- 
ern lowlands  of  Scotland,  rye  in  the  sandy  dis- 
tricts on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic  sea, 
and  maize  throughout  the  United  States  of 
America.  They  are  all  annuals,  both  in  their 
stems  and  roots,  the  whole  plant  dying  after  the 
seed  has  been  completely  formed  and  ripened, 
and  sometimes  even  before  the  latter  process 
has  fully  taken  place.  All  send  up  a  hollow 
straw,  or  culm,  which  is  divided  into  lengths  by 
nodes  or  joints;  'at  these  joints  the  leaves  have 
their  insertion,  one  at  each  joint  on  the  alternate 
sides  of  the  stem ;  and  each  leaf  embraces  the 
stem  for  some  length  in  the  manner  of  a  sheath. 
These  stems,  moreover,  always  contain  a  portion 
of  silex,  or  earth  of  flint ;  and  hence  their  ashes 
are  useful  in  polishing  articles  formed  of  wood, 
horn,  ivory,  and  some  of  the  softer  metals; 
5 


58  A    GRAIN    OF    WHEAT. 

while  its  presence,  and  the  difficulty  of  separating 
it  from  what  is  purely  vegetable,  has  prevented 
the  use  of  straw  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 
The  last  leaf  of  the  season  becomes  a  sheath  to 
the  newly-formed  flower,  embracing  it  for  a  time 
so  firmly  that  the  sheath  cannot  be  opened  with- 
out difficulty.  With  the  growth  of  the  flower  it 
bursts  open  its  sheath,  rises  above  it,  and  the 
leaf  then  turns  backward.  The  head,  or  ear, 
consists  of  an  uncertain  number  of  flowers,  fol- 
lowed by  seeds.  These  are  sometimes  placed  on 
a  single  rib  or  rachis,  as  in  wheat  and  barley, 
and  they  then  form  a  spike.  In  what  is  called 
Egyptian  wheat  this  spike  is  compound,  there 
being  more  than  one  rachis :  if  this  consists 
of  branches  that  are  naked  at  their  points  of 
junction,  and  have  spikelets  at  their  extremities, 
they  form  what  is  called  a  panicle :  this  is  the 
case,  for  example,  with  oats.  A  full-grown  and 
perfect  grain  of  wheat  is  in  form  a  compressed 
oval,  and  is  enclosed  first  in  certain  chaffy  sides, 
which  are  easily  separated,  and  then  in  a  mem- 
braneous tunic  or  covering,  which  invests  the 
seed  much  more  closely.  On  one  side  of  the 
grain  a  groove  may  be  observed ;  and  at  the 
base,  on  the  opposite  side,  there  is  a  small  pro- 
tuberant oval  space,  which  shows  the  germ  or 
embryo  of  the  future  plant,  and  which  is  at  this 
time  covered  by  the  tunics.  The  vessels  where- 
by the  grain  was  attached  to  the  plant,  and 
through  which  it  drew  nourishment  until  its  ma- 
turity, had  their  point  of  attachment  at  the  low- 
est end  of  this  protuberance.  When  the  seed  is 
perfectly  ripe,  these  vessels  separate,  the  point 


PRODUCE    OF    AN    EAR.  59 

of  separation  speedily  heals,  the  grain  may  then 
be  easily  threshed  out  from  the  chaff  in  which  it 
had  lain  buried,  and  sometimes  it  sheds  itself 
spontaneously. 

E.  Oh,  dear,  dear,  papa !  —  what  a  little  won- 
der is  a  grain  of  wheat !  Now  I  shall  look 
out  for  the  groove  and  the  little  protuberance ; 
and  then  you  know  one  grain  produces  an  ear, 
and  that  will  yield  a  great  many. 

Mr.  E.  It  will,  my  dear  ;  the  corculum,  '  lit- 
tle heart/  or  germ,  contains  a  principle,  which, 
if  rightly  managed,  can  produce,  not  only  a  plant 
of  wheat,  but  plant  after  plant,  until,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  harvests,  its  progeny  would  be- 
come capable  of  feeding  a  nation.  Thus,  not- 
withstanding the  ravages  of  war,  the  vital  princi- 
ple of  vegetation,  destined  for  the  chief  support 
of  the  human  race,  has  not  been  lost,  but  it  has 
remained  to  man,  like  fire,  which  he  alone  has 
subjected  to"  his  use,  to  be  called  forth  at  his  bid- 
ding, and  to  contribute  to  his  support,  comfort, 
and  prosperity.  One  circumstance  connected 
with  the  increase  of  the  cereal  grains  is  very  sin- 
gular. An  insect  *  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  very 
core  of  thejprimary  shoot  of  the  wheat,  so  that  it 
is  completely  destroyed  by  the  larvae  or  grubs ; 
and  did  not  the  plant  possess  within  itself  the 
means  of  repairing  the  injury,  the  care  and  toil 
of  the  husbandman  would  be  lost.  But  happen- 
ing, as  it  does,  in  the  spring,  shoots  immediately 
grow  forth  from  the  knots,  the  plant  becomes 
more  firmly  rooted,  and  produces,  probably  a 

*  Musca  pumilionis. 


60  PRODUCE    OF    AN    EAR. 

dozen  stems  and  ears,  where,  but  for  the  tempo- 
rary mischief,  it  might  have  yielded  only  one. 
The  inherent  power  of  multiplication  possessed 
by  vegetables  is  indeed  most  extraordinary.  In 
1660,  Sir  Kenelm  Digby  asserted  '  that  there 
was  in  the  possession  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  at  Paris,  a  plant  of  barley  which 
they  kept  at  that  time  as  a  curiosity,  and  which 
consisted  of  two  hundred  and  forty-nine  stalks 
springing  from  one  root  or  grain,  and  in  which 
they  counted  above  eighteen  thousand  grains,  or 
seeds  of  barley.  On  the  2d  of  June,  1766,  Mr. 
Miller,  of  Cambridge  sowed  some  grains  of  the 
common  red  wheat,  and,  on  the  8th  of  August,  a 
single  plant  was  taken  up,  and  divided  into  eigh- 
teen parts,  and  each  part  planted  separately.  A 
second  division  produced  sixty-seven  plants,  and 
a  third  amounted  to  five  hundred.  They  were 
then  divided  no  farther :  and  some  of  them  pro- 
duced upwards  of  one  hundred  ears  from  a  sin- 
gle root,  many  of  which  measured  seven  inches 
in  length,  and  contained  between  sixty  and  sev- 
enty grains.  The  whole  number  of  ears  which, 
by  this  process,  were  produced  from  one  grain  of 
wheat,  was  twenty-one  thousand  one  hundred 
and  nine ;  which  yielded  three  pecks  and  three 
quarters  of  clear  corn;  the  weight  of  which  was 
forty-seven  pounds,  seven  ounces  ;  and  the  whole 
number  of  grains  was  about  five  hundred  and 
seventy-six  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  forty ! 
In  this  case,  there  was  only  one  general  division 
of  the  plants  made  in  the  spring;  had  a  second 
taken  place,  Mr.  Miller  thinks  the  number  of 
plants  would  have  amounted  to  two  thousand ! 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF    WHEAT.  61 

And  now  should  you  like  to  hear  some  facts  as 
to  the  history  of  wheat? 

E.  Exceedingly,  papa,  exceedingly  ! 

Mr.  E.  In  the  early  books  of  Scripture,  we 
often  read  of  corn,  and  of  Ruth  gleaning  with  the 
maidens  of  Boaz,  '  unto  the  end  of  barley-har- 
vest, and  of  wheat-harvest/  Pliny  says,  that  in 
the  champaigne  country  about  Byzacium  in  Af- 
rica, wheat  had  been  known  to  yield  a  hundred 
and  fifty  fold.  He  mentions  that  a  procurator- 
general  of  that  province,  under  Augustus  Caesar, 
sent  the  emperor  from  thence  a  plant  of  wheat 
which  had  nearly  four  hundred  straws  springing 
from  one  grain,  and  meeting  in  one  and  the  same 
root.  Sicily  is  said  to  be  the  first  country  in  Eu- 
rope where  grain  was  cultivated.  Ceres  was  not 
only  worshipped  in  that  island,  but  is  often  rep- 
resented on  the  ancient  Sicilian  coins  ;  and  gar- 
lands of  ears  were  offered  to  her  before  they  be- 
gan to  reap.  At  what  period  wheat  was  first  cul- 
tivated in  England  is  only  matter  of  conjecture, 
CsBsar  found  corn  growing  on  the  coast,  but  of 
what  kind  we  are  not  informed.  Other  seeds 
are  dispersed  through  the  earth  by  winds  and 
currents,  in  the  hairy  coats  of  quadrupeds,  and 
in  the  maws  of  birds.  But  the  corn-plants  are 
said,  in  common  with  many  other  important  veg- 
etable productions,  to  follow  the  course  of  man 
alone.  Even  hostile  armies  have  been  instru- 
ments of  their  diffusion.  Cortez,  the  inhuman 
conqueror  of  Mexico,  wrote  from  thence  to  the 
King  of  Spain,  (l  beseech  your  Majesty  to  give 
orders  that  no  vessel  sail  for  this  country  without 
a  certain  quantity  of  plants  and  grain.'  The 
5* 


62         WHEAT    IN    MEXICO NEW    ZEALAND. 

foundation  of  the  wheat-harvests  of  that  country 
is  said  to  have  been  three  or  four  grains,  which 
a  slave  of  the  conqueror  discovered  accidentally 
in  1530,  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  rice.  These 
he  carefully  preserved,  and  used  so  advantageous- 
ly as  to  entitle  him  to  public  gratitude  ;  but  even 
his  name  is  unknown  ;  while  the  Spanish  lady, 
Maria  d'Escobar,  who  first  imported  the  same 
blessing  into  Peru,  has  her  name,  and  her  dis- 
tribution of  the  produce  of  successive  harvests  as 
seed  among  the  farmers,  celebrated  in  history. 
A  chief,  named  Duaterra,  was  the  first  person 
who  actually  reared  a  crop  of  wheat  in  New  Zea- 
land. On  leaving  Port  Jackson  the  second  time, 
to  return  home,  he  took  with  him  a  quantity  of 
it,  and  much  surprised  his  acquaintances  by  in- 
forming them  that  this  was  the  very  substance  of 
which  the  Europeans  made  biscuit,  such  as  they 
had  seen  and  eaten  on  board  their  ships.  He 
gave  a  portion  of  it  to  several  persons,  all  of  whom 
put  it  into  the  ground,  and  it  grew  well ;  but, 
before  it  was  well  ripe,  many  of  them  were  im- 
patient for  the  produce  ;  and,  as  they  expected 
to  find  the  grain  at  the  roots  of  the  stems,  similar 
to  their  potatoes,  they  examined  them,  and,  find- 
ing no  wheat  under  the  ground,  all,  except  one, 
pulled  it  up,  and  burned  it.  The  chiefs  ridiculed 
Duaterra  about  the  wheat ;  and  all  he  urged 
would  not  convince  them  that  wheat  would  make 
bread.  His  own  crops,  and  that  of  his  uncle, 
who  had  allowed  the  grain  to  remain,  came,  in 
time,  to  perfection,  and  were  reaped  and  threshed  ; 
and,  though  the  natives  were  much  astonished  to 
find  that  the  grain  was  produced  at  the  top  and  not 


WHEAT    GENERALLY    DIFFUSED.  63 

at  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  yet  still  they  could  not 
be  persuaded  that  bread  could  be  made  of  it.  A 
friend  afterwards  sent  Duaterra  a  steel  mill  to 
grind  his  wheat,  which  he  received  with  no  little 
joy.  He  soon  set  to  work  before  his  countrymen, 
ground  some  wheat,  and  they  danced  and  shout- 
ed with  delight  when  they  saw  the  meal.  He 
afterwards  made  a  cake,  and  baked  it  in  a  frying- 
pan,  and  gave  it  to  the  people  to  eat,  which  fully 
satisfied  them  of  the  truth  of  his  assertions.  The 
chiefs  now  begged  more  seed,  which  they  sowed ; 
and  such  of  it  as  was  attended  to  grew  up  as 
strong  a  crop  as  could  be  desired. 

F.  Will  wheat  grow  any  where,  papa  ? 

Mr.  E.  Ancient  and  modern  writers  affirm 
that  it  will  grow  with  cultivation  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  world.  It  is  found  to  flourish,  not  only 
in  our  temperate  clime,  but  also  in  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  In  Lapland,  it  is  cultivated  as 
far  as  sixty-eight  or  seventy  degrees  north  lati- 
tude ;  and  Humboldt  found,  in  the  vicinity  of  La 
Vittoria,  at  the  moderate  elevation  of  two  hun- 
dred and  seventy-three  toises  above  the  level  of 
the  ocean,  some  fields  of  wheat,  mingled  with 
plantations  of  coffee,  plantains,  and  sugar-canes. 
Thus,  as  it  is  the  plant  most  necessary  to  man- 
kind, so  it  is  the  most  general ;  and  it  ought  not 
to  be  overlooked,  that  its  presence  in  any  region 
of  the  earth  attests  that  man  is  there  in  an  ad- 
vanced state  of  civilization.  In  the  sepulchres  of 
the  Egyptian  kings,  which  were  opened  by  the 
scientific  men  who  accompanied  the  French 
army  into  Egypt,  the  common  wheat  was  found 
in  vessels  so  perfectly  closed  that  the  grains  re- 


64  STARCH. 

tained  their  form  and  color;  and  thus,  buried, 
as  it  had  been,  for  several  thousand  years,  it 
shows  as  clearly  the  civilization  of  that  country 
as  its  temples  now  in  ruins :  because  the  corn- 
plants,  such  as  they  appear  under  cultivation,  do 
not  grow  wild  in  any  part  of  the  earth.  Emma, 
do  you  recollect  anything  besides  bread  made 
from  wheat? 

E.  I  think  not,  papa  :  —  but,  let  me  see  t  — 
oh,  I  remember  now  reading  something  about 
starch. 

Mr.  E.  To  that  I  referred,  my  dear.  We  are 
indebted,  for  its  invention,  to  the  island  of  Chios. 
Starch-flour  was  called  Amylum  by  the  Greeks, 
because  it  was  made  without  going  into  a  mill, 
or  being  ground  on  stones.  The  next  in  esteem 
with  the  ancients  was  that  of  Candia  and  Egypt  ; 
where  it  was  procured  by  simply  putting  the 
wheat  in  a  wooden  vessel,  and  covering  it  with 
fresh  water,  which  was  changed  five  times  a 
day  :  it  was  then  made  into  a  kind  of  paste,  and 
afterwards  laid  to  dry,  either  on  linen  cloths,  or 
in  wicker  baskets ;  and  finally,  it  was  put  on 
tiles,  and  placed  in  the  sun  to  harden.  Besides 
starch,  however,  wheat  contains  gluten,  which 
is  of  a  grey  color,  is  very  viscid,  or  sticky,  and 
makes  it  the  most  nourishing  of  all  grain ;  and 
mucilage,  which  is  a  gummy  substance. 

E.  Now,  papa,  as  we  have  called  to  see  Mrs. 
and  Miss  Robinson,  and  you  have  rested  your- 
self, and  Frederick  has  admired  the  new  micro- 
scope, and  I  have  been  delighted  with  it  too, 
and  have  borrowed  this  pretty  drawing  which  I 


TRADITION     OF    THE    INDIANS.  65 

wish  to  copy  —  how  delightful  it  will  be  if  you 
can  tell  us  more  about  the  corn-plants  as  we  re- 
turn home ! 

Mr.  E.  Well,  then,  my  curious  little  girl,  we 
must  think  of  barley,  which  the  Egyptians  sup- 
pose was  the  first  used  for  the  sustenance  of  man. 
They  affirm  that  the  mode  of  cultivating  it  was 
imparted  to  their  ancestors  by  the  goddess  Isis, 
who,  having  discovered  the  plant  growing  wild 
in  the  woods,  taught  men  how  to  rear  it,  so  as 
at  once  to  increase  the  quantity,  and  improve 
the  quality  of  its  produce.  A  chief  of  the  Sus- 
quehannah  Indians  related  to  Dr.  Franklin  a 
similar  tale  — ( In  the  beginning,'  said  he,  '  our 
fathers  had  only  the  flesh  of  animals  to  subsist 
on  ;  and,  if  their  hunting  was  unsuccessful,  they 
were  starving.  Two  of  our  young  hunters  hav- 
ing killed  a  deer,  made  a  fire  in  the  woods  to 
broil  some  part  of  it.  When  they  were  about  to 
satisfy  their  hunger,  they  beheld  a  beautiful 
young  woman  descend  from  the  clouds,  and  seat 
herself  on  that  hill  which  you  see  yonder  among 
the  blue  mountains.  They  said  to  each  other, 
'  It  is  a  spirit,  that  perhaps  has  smelt  our  broiling 
venison,  and  wishes  to  eat  of  it :  let  us  offer 
some  to  her.'  They  presented  her  with  the 
tongue ;  she  was  pleased  with  the  taste  of  it, 
and  said,  '  Your  kindness  shall  be  rewarded. 
Come  to  this  place  after  thirteen  moons,  and 
you  shall  find  something  that  shall  be  of  great 
benefit  in  nourishing  you  and  your  children  to 
the  latest  generation/  They  did  so;  and,  to 
their  great  surprise,  found  plants,  they  had 
never  seen  before,  but  which,  from  that  ancient 


66  RAPID    GROWTH    OF    BARLEY. 

time,  have  been  constantly  cultivated  among  us 
to  our  great  advantage.  Where  her  right  hand 
had  touched  the  ground,  they  found  maize; 
where  her  left  hand  had  touched  it,  they  found 
kidney-beans;  and,  where  she  had  seated  her- 
self, they  found  tobacco.'  Thus  the  uninstruct- 
ed  are  fond  of  the  marvellous  and  supernatural, 
and  fictions  supply  the  place  of  facts. 

F.  Where,  papa,  was  barley  first  grown  ? 

Mr.  E.  That  I  cannot  tell  you,  my  dear.  In 
some  respects,  it  has  the  advantage  of  wheat. 
It  may  be  propagated  over  a  wider  range  of  cli- 
mate, bearing  heat  and  drought  better,  and  com- 
ing so  quickly  to  maturity,  that  the  short  north- 
ern summers,  which  do  not  allow  of  the  ripen- 
ing of  wheat,  are  yet  long  enough  for  the  per- 
fection of  barley.  It  is  the  latest  sown,  and 
the  earliest  reaped,  of  all  the  summer  grains. 
In  warm  countries,  such  as  Spain,  the  farmers 
can  gather  two  harvests  of  barley  within  the 
year.  Linnreus  relates,  in  his  tour  in  Lulean 
Lapland,  that  the  whole  process  of  its  production 
occupied  not  longer  than  six  weeks.  When  the 
bark  of  the  grain  is  removed,  it  is  called  Scotch 
or  pearl  barley.  The  ancients  used  to  make  it, 
in  its  raw  state,  food  for  horses,  as  the  Spaniards 
do  to  the  present  day.  And  I  remember  a 
curious  fact,  which  shows  the  effect  of  habit.  A 
man  of  property  was  taken  by  pirates,  carried, 
with  the  other  passengers,  and  the  crew  of  a 
vessel,  to  Algiers,  where  he  was  condemned  to 
work  as  a  slave.  Every  morning  he  received, 
on  going  out  to  work,  in  common  with  the  cap- 
tives, some  barley,  of  which  he  took  a  few  grains 


EFFECT  OF  HABIT INTOXICATING  LIQUORS.    67 

now  and  then,  as  he  had  opportunity.  After 
several  years  of  bondage  he  obtained  his  freedom, 
but  he  could  not  thenceforward  take  a  regular 
meal ;  he  could  only  eat  occasionally,  and  then 
but  little  at  a  time,  as  he  did  in  the  days  of  his 
captivity. 

F.  For  what  else,  papa,  is  barley  used  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  in  the  history  of 
man,  that  almost  all  nations,  from  the  earliest 
antiquity,  have  had  some  method  of  producing 
intoxication ;  and  barley  was  employed  for  this 
purpose  in  times  far  distant.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  the  natural  substitute  for  wine  in  the  coun- 
tries which  could  not  produce  the  grape,  and  to 
have  been  originally  made  in  Egypt,  where  the 
art  of  brewing  this  fermented  barley-liquor  was 
confidently  attributed  to  Osiris,  the  Bacchus  of 
the  people.  From  Egypt,  this  liquor  passed  to  the 
west,  through  Galatia,  and  various  countries  that 
were  too  cold  for  vines ;  and,  even  where  they 
could  be  cultivated,  the  process  of  making  in- 
toxicating liquor  from  corn  was  much  more 
rapid  than  the  cultivation  of  them.  Every 
migrating  race,  passing  into  a  colder  climate, 
would,  therefore,  naturally  cherish  this  inven- 
tion ;  thus  the  knowledge  of  this  liquor  spread 
over  all  the  countries  of  Europe  under  various 
appellations,  all  of  which  literally  denoted,  at 
first,  '  the  strong  water/  In  England,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of 
Wessex.  It  was  the  favorite  liquor  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  Danes,  as  it  had  been  of  their  ances- 
tors, the  Germans.  Amongst  the  liquors  pro- 
vided for  a  royal  banquet,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 


68  ALE  IMMENSE    VAT. 

the  Confessor,  ale  is  particularly  mentioned. 
The  monasteries,  from  early  periods,  had  always 
breweries,  and  good  cellars,  inclosed  in  their  pre- 
cincts ;  and  that  called  '  conventual  ale '  was 
always  the  strongest  and  the  best.  But  it  was 
not  till  1524  that  hops  were  first  brought  to 
England ;  and  about  the  reign  of  James  I.  they 
became  generally  used.  It  is  about  three  hun- 
dred  years  since  ale  was  first  made  in  England 
as  it  is  made  now ;  and  in  1830,  there  were 
46,727  acres  occupied  in  the  cultivation  of  hops 
in  Great  Britain.  The  extent  to  which  porter- 
brewing  is  carried,  in  London,  may  be  conceiv- 
ed from  the  account  we  have  of  a  vat,  in  the 
brewery  of  Messrs.  Meux  &>  Co.,  whose  circum- 
ference was  nearly  a  hundred  feet,  its  height 
was  about  twenty-two  feet,  and  it  contained 
three,  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty-six  barrels, 
or  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  thousand  and 
sixteen  gallons  !  The  great  brewers  have  given 
entertainments  in  their  immense  vats  to  distin- 
guished persons,  who  have  been  greatly  amused 
by  the  circumstance. 

E.  Oh,  papa,  how  funny  they  must  look ! 
The  people  seem  very  little  from  a  high  place, 
such  as  the  gallery  of  St.  Paul's ;  but  then,  you 
know,  these  are  not  so  far  down.  What  a  quan- 
tity must  be  made  by  all  the  brewers ! 

Mr.  E.  It  is  indeed  immense.  I  have  men- 
tioned to  you  the  saccharine  fermentation  of 
seeds;  and  this  is  artificially  produced,  to  make 
malt.  For  this  purpose,  a  quantity  of  barley  is 
soaked  in  water  for  two  or  three  days;  the 
water  being  afterwards  drained  off,  the  grain 


MANUFACTURE    OP    MALT OATS.  69 

heats  spontaneously,  swells,  bursts,  sweetens, 
shows  a  disposition  to  germinate,  and  actually 
sprouts  to  the  length  "of  an  inch  ;  when  it  is  put 
into  a  kiln,  by  which  the  process  is  stopped, 
and  the  grain  is  well  dried  at  a  gentle  heat.  In 
this  state  it  is  malt,  the  principal  ingredient  of 
beer.  About  thirty  million  bushels  of  barley  are 
annually  converted  into  malt  in  Great  Britain ; 
and  more  than  eight  million  barrels  of  beer  —  of 
which  four-fifths  are  strong  beer  —  are  brewed 
yearly !  But  I  think  there  will  be  time,  before 
we  reach  home,  to  notice  some  facts  respecting 
oats,  which  grows  on  soils  and  in  situations 
where  neither  barley  nor  wheat  can  be  raised, 
and  which  is  the  hardiest  of  all  the  cereal  grains 
cultivated  in  Great  Britain. 

E.  And,  papa,  oats  are   not  like  the  other 
plants. 

Mr.  E.  They  are  not.  my  dear.  The  ear  of 
oats  is  not  a  spike  with  a  single  rachis,  but  a 
panicle,  resembling  in  some  degree  the  stem  and 
branches  of  a  pine.  While  young  and  light, 
these  branches  arrange  themselves  round  the 
centre  of  the  stem  ;  but  as  they  advance  towards 
maturity,  and  acquire  weight,  they  generally 
bend  over  on  one  side.  And  why  do  you  think 
this  is?  That  thus  the  air  and  light  may  visit, 
and  the  rain  may  wash  each  individual  grain ; 
so  that  any  lodgement  of  the  larvae  or  grubs  of 
insects,  or  the  seeds  of  parasitical  or  destructive 
plants,  is  thereby  prevented.  Still  further,  the 
grains  being  pendent,  and  having  the  open 
extremities  of  their  chaff  towards  the  earth,  are 
effectually  defended  from  the  lodgement  of  rain 
6 


70  CONSUMPTION    OF    WHEAT. 

within,  an  advantage  which  neither  wheat  nor 
barley  possesses,  and  hence  are  liable  to  diseases 
from  which  oats  are  exempted.  Their  nutritive 
quality,  however,  is  smaller,  in  a  given  weight, 
than  that  of  any  other  cereal  grains ;  but  they 
are  well  adapted  as  food  for  horses  and  poultry. 
Oatmeal,  prepared  in  various  ways,  is  used  very 
generally  in  Scotland;  and  cakes  made  of  it  are 
thought  by  many  to  be  very  agreeable.  For- 
merly it  was  more  commonly  used.  In  the 
household  book  of  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  1595, 
there  are  constant  entries  of  oatmeal  for  the  use 
of  the  house,  besides  '  otmell  to  make  the  poore 
folkes  porage.'  And,  about  fifty  years  ago,  so 
small  was  the  quantity  of  wheat  used  in  the 
county  of  Cumberland,  that  it  was  only  a  rich 
family  that  used  a  peck  of  wheat  in  the  course 
of  a  year,  and  that  was  at  Christmas.  The 
usual  treat  for  a  stranger  was  a  thick  oat-cake 
and  butter.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
14,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  are  said  to  have 
been  grown  in  England;  but  it  is  stated  that 
the  annual  consumption  of  wheat  in  the  United 
Kingdom  now,  is  estimated  at  13,000,000  quar- 
ters, and  that  of  other  grain  at  36,000,000 
quarters ;  making  together  48,000.000,  of  which 
not  one  twentieth  part  has  during  any  year  been 
imported,  and  in  general  a  far  less  proportionate 
quantity.  The  daily  consumption  of  wheat  in 
the  United  Kingdom  may  be  taken  at  35,000, 
and  of  all  other  grain  at  108,000  quarters  a 
day.  Each  person  consumes  about  seven 
bushels  annually. 

E.  Now,  papa,  you  look  as  if  you  were  going 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  71 

to  stop ;  but  we  have  not  reached  the  long  green 
lane  yet.  Frederick  seems  too  as  if  he  should 
like  to  hear  a  little  more ;  and,  as  for  me,  I'm 
never,  never  tired. 

Mr.  E.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  vital  princi- 
ples of  some  vegetables  will  lie  dormant  for  years, 
and  even  ages.  Seeds  have  been  made  to  grow 
in  this  country  after  being  buried  at  Herculaneum 
for  more  than  seventeen  centuries ;  but  which, 
having  been  so  long  deprived  of  air  had  been 
kept  from  vegetating.  Without  this  element, 
they,  like  ourselves,  cannot  exist.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  observation,  that  the  agriculturist  pays 
attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  soil,  lest  his 
crops  should  be  lessened.  The  Celts  improved 
their  land,  when  it  was  stiff  and  clayey,  by  burn- 
ing the  natural  produce  of  the  soil  before  they 
ploughed  it ;  and  our  '  fallowing, '  by  which  the 
land  is  allowed  a  year's  rest  occasionally,  and 
during  that  time  is  repeatedly  turned  over  by  the 
plough,  exposes  every  part  to  the  atmosphere, 
whence  it  absorbs  oxygen  ;  and,  the  weeds  being 
buried  in  the  process,  the  land  is  greatly  enriched. 
Two  sorts  of  grain,  moreover,  cannot  be  raised 
in  succession  without  the  latter  degenerating  : 
while  some  plants  succeeding  a  crop  of  grain  are 
improved  by  it. 

'F.  How  does  that  happen,  papa  ? 

Mr.  E.  M.  de  Candolle  supposes  it  to  be  as 
follows  :  A  plant  being  under  the  necessity  of 
absorbing  whatever  comes  to  its  roots,  sucks  up 
some  particles  not  adapted  to  its  nourishment ; 
and,  in  consequence,  —  after  having  manufac- 
tured the  sap  in  its  leaves,  and  sent  it  downwards 


72  ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

through  all  its  organs,  each  of  which  receives  the 
nourishment  it  requires,  and  made,  in  fact,  as 
much  of  it  as  possible,  —  it  has  a  residue  of  what 
is  not  adapted  to  its  support :  these  particles  are 
therefore  given  out  unaltered  by  the  roots,  and 
thus  deteriorate  the  soil  for  a  following  crop  of 
the  same  species  of  plant,  but  improve  it  for  one 
of  another  family.  What  a  benevolent  provision 
is  this  !  We  have  had  several  others  resembling 
it  in  the  present  conversation. 

In  the  Vale  of  Glastonbury,  it  is  said,  there  is 
land  where  wheat  has  grown  for  many  years  to- 
gether without  any  manure;  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Carron  iron-works,  in  Scotland, 
wheat  has  been  raised  above  thirty  years,  with- 
out injury  either  to  the  crops  or  the  soil ;  but,  in 
these  instances,  the  soil  must  not  only  abound 
with  vegetable  nourishment,  but  be  particularly 
adapted  to  growing  wheat ;  consequently,  the 
roots  would  have  little  or  nothing  to  reject,  and 
"successive  crops  of  the  same  grain  might  be  rais- 
ed so  long  as  the  land  was  not  exhausted.  M. 
de  Candolle's  opinion  seems  just,  but  it  requires 
the  support  of  facts.  It  is  true,  nature  does  not 
raise  plants  of  different  families  in  succession, 
but  she  does  what  is  equal  in  effect.  She  raises 
such  a  prodigious  variety  of  trees  and  shrubs  in 
her  spontaneous  forests,  atid  in  her  meadows  su£h 
a  multiplicity  of  herbs  and  grasses,  that  the  dif- 
ferent plants  mutually  supply  each  other  with 
what  they  give  forth  ;  and  then  the  whole  plant, 
whether  grass,  shrub,  or  tree,  returns  to  the  soil; 
to  repay  the  nourishment  it  had  previously  re- 
ceived. 


CORN-MILLS.  73 

E.  I  see,  papa,  we  may  learn  something  eve- 
ry where,  if  we  please.     Shall  we  go  over  the 
little  bridge,  and  pass  by  the  mill  ? 

Mr.  E.  Yes ;  that  way  is  preferable.  In  the 
East,  grain  was  commonly  reduced  to  meal  by  a 
mill ;  not  like  that  on  the  right,  which  is  work- 
ed by  water,  but  which  went  by  hand.  It  con- 
sisted of  the  lower  mill-stone,  the  upper  side  of 
which  was  concave,  and  the  upper  mill-stone,  the 
lower  side  of  which  was  convex.  The  hole  for 
receiving  the  flower  was  in  the  centre  of  the  up- 
per mill-stone ;  and,  when  corn  was  ground,  the 
lower  one  was  fixed,  and  the  upper  was  made  to 
move  round  it,  by  means  of  a  handle,  with  con- 
siderable velocity.  Dr.  Clarke  says,  '  In  the  isl- 
and of  Cyprus,  I  observed  upon  the  ground  the 
sort  of  stones  used  for  grinding  corn,  called  querns 
in  Scotland,  common  also  in  Lapland,  and  in  all 
parts  of  Palestine.  These  are  the  primeval  mills 
of  the  world,  and  they  are  still  found  in  all  corn 
countries  where  rude  and  ancient  customs  have 
not  been  liable  to  those  changes  introduced  by 
refinement.  The  employment  of  grinding  with 
these  mills  is  confined  solely  to  females  ;  and  the 
practice  illustrates  the  prophetic  declaration  of 
the  Saviour  concerning  the  day  of  Jerusalem's 
destruction  :  *  Two  women  shall  be  grinding  at 
the  mill  :  one  shall  be  taken  and  the  other  left.' 

F.  We  should  know  then,  papa,  how  they  man- 
age in  the  East,  if  we  would  understand  the  Bible. 

Mr.  E.  We    should,  my  dear.     Without    an 

acquaintance  with  Oriental  manners  and  customs, 

much  will  be  obscure  which  would  otherwise  be 

plain.     I  hope,  however,  you  will  be  increasing- 

6* 


74  EFFECTS    OF    FOOD. 

ly  interested  with  the  study  on  which  we  have 
entered.  How  various  are  the  changes  of  mat- 
ter !  Out  of  the  rude  materials  of  the  seeds,  and 
roots,  and  leaves  of  plants,  spring  many  forms  of 
strength  and  beauty ;  and  by  them  and  animal 
food  the  human  frame  itself  is  built  up.  Yes ! 
by  these  the  little  babe  is  sustained,  so  that  it 
may  pass  through  the  days  of  childhood  and  youth 
and  at  length  become  the  man  in  all  the  energy 
of  his  power,  or  the  woman  in  all  her  tenderness 
and  grace ;  and  by  these  the  eye  is  preserved  in 
all  its  brightness,  and  the  lip  to  pour  forth  its 
eloquence,  and  the  ear  to  receive  instruction,  and 
the  hand  to  display  its  cunning,  and  the  brain  — 
that  instrument  of  mind,  of  soul — by  which  man 
is  prepared  to  advance  his  own  interest  and  that 
of  others  and  to  engage  in  the  service  of  Him 
who  is  the  '  Great  Source  of  Being.' 

E.  Astonishing,  astonishing  !  But  I  see  some 
one  coming  whom  we  all  love.  There  is  Ed- 
ward on  the  little  grey  pony  !  Look,  how  happy  he 
seems  !  —  and  then  how  great  he  appears  !  And 
here  is  dear,  dear  mamma.  — Oh,  I  have  such 
wonderful  things  to  tell  you  —  about  wheat,  and 
barley,  and  oats ! 

Mrs.  E.  I  am  glad  you  have  been  so  much 
interested,  my  love,  and  Frederick  looks  as 
pleased  as  yourself;  so  when  you  have  related 
what  you  can  recollect,  perhaps  I  may  tell  you 
of  some  other  things,  almost  or  quite  as  amazing. 
Frederick,  dear,  open  the  gate  ;  your  walk  has 
been  very  long,  though  papa,  I  know,  has  made 
it  very  delightful. 


FLAX.  75 


THE  PROMISE. 

<  I  HAVE  not  forgotten  the  promise  you  gave 
us,  dear  mamma/  said  Emma ;  '  what  wonderful 
things  did  you  mean  ?  I  hope  the  time  will  soon 
come  when  you  will  be  able  to  tell  us.' 

'  One  of  those  to  which  I  referred/  said  Mrs. 
Elwood,  ( is  a  slender  plant,  that  seldom  exceeds 
two  feet  and  a  half  in  height,  and  which  is 
scarcely  superior  in  appearance  to  the  common 
grass ;  yet  this  it  is  which  yields  many  of  our 
garments ;  to  it  our  sex,  Emma,  is  indebted  for 
much  that  is  ornamental ;  it  is  the  medium  of 
many  of  the  pleasures  and  advantages  of  friend- 
ship; and,  without  it,  this  island  might  have  re- 
mained unknown  and  unpeopled.' 

t  A  plant,  did  you  say,  dear  mamma  ?  '  asked 
Emma. 

6  I  did,  my  love/  replied  her  mother ;  '  and 
that  plant  is  flax ;  from  whose  fibres  we  procure 
the  comfort  of  linen,  and  the  beauty  of  lace; 
these  also  yield  paper  for  our  letters  and  books, 
and  of  them  sails  were  first  made  for  our  vessels, 
with  which  the  ocean  is  traversed,  commerce  ex- 
tended to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  our  isle  en- 
riched with  the  most  useful  roots,  luxurious  fruits, 
and  ornamental  plants.3 

At  this  statement,  Emma  acknowledged  that 
her  curiosity  was  still  more  excited  ;  and,  after 
having  obtained  permission  to  ask  her  father  to 
join  them,  if  sufficiently  disengaged,  and  secur- 
ed his  acquiescence,  she  inquired  where  flax  was 
first  used. 


76  EARLY    USE    OP    LINEN. 

Mrs.  E.  Some  have  supposed  that  linen-cloth 
was  made  previous  to  the  deluge,  because  we 
read  that  Noah  slept  in  a  tent ;  but  Egypt,  which 
is  called  the  land  of  Ham,  soon  became  the  gar- 
den of  the  East,  and  the  seat  of  arts.  Isis,  the 
wife  of  his  son  Misrairn,  is  said  to  have  taught 
the  art  of  agriculture,  and  employed  herself  dili- 
gently in  cultivating  the  earth,  for  which  she  was 
deified,  and  the  worship  of  Isis  became  universal 
in  Egypt.  Her  priests  were  clothed  in  linen  gar- 
ments. The  eastern  kings  and  princes  were  al- 
so attired  in  linen  ;  flax,  therefore,  formed  a  con- 
siderable branch  of  the  trade  of  Egypt ;  and  the 
method  of  making  fine  linen  was  carried  to  such 
perfection  that  the  threads  which  were  drawn 
out  of  it  were  almost  imperceptible  to  the  keen- 
est eye.  Pliny  states,  that  some  of  the  thread 
made  from  flax  was  finer,  and  more  even,  if  pos- 
sible, than  the  web  of  a  spider,  and  yet  so  strong 
that  it  would  give  a  sound  nearly  as  loud  as  a 
lute-string.  He  says,  too,  that  he  had  seen  an 
Egyptian  net  made  of  so  minute  a  thread  that  not- 
withstanding every  cord  in  the  mesh  was  made 
of  a  hundred  and  fifty  threads  twisted,  yet  it  could 
be  drawn  through  the  ring  of  a  finger  ;  but  that 
the  most  extraordinary  net- work  was  that  shown 
in  the  temple  of  Minerva,  in  the  isle  of  Rhodes, 
every  thread  of  which  was  twisted  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  times  double,  according  to  the  days 
in  a  year.  This  curious  piece  of  workmanship 
had  formerly  belonged  to  Amasis,  who,  from  a 
common  soldier,  became  King  of  Egypt,  about 
five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
Greeks  made  a  linen  of  so  fine  a  fabric,  from 


LIVING    FLAX.  77 

the  flax  which  they  cultivated  at  Belvedere,  that 
it  sold  by  weight  at  the  price  of  gold.  But  what 
should  you  think,  Frederick,  of  cloth  that  could 
not  be  consumed  in  the  fire  ? 

F.  Oh,  mamma,  that  would  be  strange !  I 
should  have  thought  it  would  burn  very  quickly  ; 
and  Emma  whispers,  '  So  should  I,  I'm  sure  ! ' 

Mrs.  E.  Pliny  describes  it  as  '  living  flax/ 
and  says  he  saw,  at  a  great  feast,  all  the  table- 
cloths, napkins,  and  towels  thrown  into  the  fire, 
which  received  a  cleanness  and  lustre  from  the 
flames  which  no  water  could  have  given.  This 
cloth  was  used  at  royal  funerals  to  wrap  round  the 
corpse  as  a  shroud  or  sheet,  in  order  to  preserve 
the  ashes  of  the  body  from  mixing  with  those  of 
the  funeral  pile,  on  which  it  was  consumed.  He 
adds,  that  the  flax  of  which  it  was  made  grew  in 
the  deserts  of  India,  where  the  country  is  parched 
and  burnt  with  the  sun  —  that  it  is  difficult  to  be 
found,  and  hard  to  be  woven,  from  the  shortness 
of  the  fibres. 

E.  Has  any  one  had  it  since  that  time,  mam- 
ma? 

Mrs.  E.  The  art  of  making  this  cloth  is  near- 
ly lost,  although  John  Baptist  Porta,  the  inven- 
ter  of  an  optical  instrument  called  the  camera 
obscura,  says  that  in  his  time,  some  three  or  four 
hundred  years  ago,  the  spinning  of  asbestos,  * 
for  this  is  the  substance  presumed  to  be  intend- 
ed by  Pliny,  was  a  thing  known  to  every  body  at 
Venice  ;  and,  it  is  said,  still  to  be  used  by  the 
princes  of  Tartary,  in  burning  their  dead.  A 

*  A  beautiful  mineral  of  a  fibrous  appearance. 


78  ASBESTOS. 

handkerchief,  made  of  this  substance,  was  long- 
since  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
The  asbestos  is  still  found  in  the  isle  of  Anglesey, 
in  Aberdeenshire,  in  some  parts  of  France,  and 
in  several  other  places.  Papa,  I  dare  say,  will 
now  kindly  tell  you  of  some  purposes,  not  yet 
mentioned,  to  which  flaxen  linen  was  applied. 

Mr.  E.  I  will  assist  you  very  cheerfully,  my 
dear,  in  this  pleasing  task.  It  was  used  at  a  ve- 
ry early  period  for  the  stupendous  temples  of  the 
heathen,  and  for  the  courts  of  their  palaces, 
which  were  open  buildings,  surrounded  with  mas- 
sive columns ;  and,  as  the  art  of  weaving  became 
known,  these  gorgeous  edifices  were  occasional- 
ly hung  with  rich  curtains  of  linen  cloth,  to  shade 
or  protect  the  guests  from  the  sun  or  weather. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  grand  festival  given  by 
Ahasuerus,  as  described  in  the  book  of  Esther, 
he  feasted  all  the  people  that  were  in  Shushan,, 
in  the  court  of  the  garden  of  the  king's  palace, 
where  were  white,  green,  and  blue  hangings,  fast- 
ened with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver 
rings,  and  pillars  of  marble.  Julius  Caesar  caus- 
ed the  Forum,  at  Rome,  to  be  covered  with  fine 
curtains,  as  also  the  whole  of  the  principal  street, 
called  Sacra,  from  his  own  dwelling  to  the  cliff 
of  the  capitol.  And  Nero  ordered  the  amphithe- 
atre to  be  adorned  with  curtains  of  a  sky-blue, 
spangled  with  stars.  Spain  was  celebrated  for 
her  manufacture  of  linen  as  early  as  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  and,  subsequently,  it  was  made  in  France 
Holland,  and  Germany.  The  people  of  the  last- 
mentioned  country  carried  on  the  spinning  and 
weaving  of  linen  in  vaults  and  caves  under 


DOMESTIC    WEAVING.  79 

ground.  The  fine  muslins  of  India  were  also 
made  by  persons  thus  entombed,  who  were  nev- 
er allowed  to  see  the  light.  Even  children  were 
imprisoned  from  their  infancy  in  these  dark 
abodes,  in  order  to  produce  a  finer  thread  than 
it  was  thought  could  be  drawn  by  the  eye  which 
was  blessed  with  the  light  of  day. 

E.  Oh,  dear  papa,  I  hope  they  are  not  so  cruel 
now  ! 

Mr.  E.  They  are  not,  my  dear ;  the  art  of 
weaving  then  practised  is  happily  lost ;  and  none 
can  wish  its  revival.  The  first  person  who  wore 
a  linen  shirt  was  the  Emperor  Alexander  Se- 
verus,  who  was  murdered  A.  D.  235 ;  but  the 
general  use  of  such  a  garment  did  uot  take  place 
till  long  after  that  period.  The  making  of  linen 
cloth  was  probably  introduced  by  the  Romans,  who 
certainly  cultivated  flax  in  this  country.  Before 
Britain  had  attained  its  present  eminence,  each 
town  or  village  had  its  weaver  :  the  daughters  of 
farmers  were  early  instructed  in  this  art :  their 
female  domestics  filled  up  all  their  vacant  hours 
at  the  distaff  or  wheel ;  and  every  good  mother 
was  expected  to  supply  her  family  with  linen  of 
her  own  spinning.  A  friend  of  mine,  in  a  recent 
visit  to  Scotland,  saw  a  singular  specimen  of  in- 
genuity —  a  man's  shirt  wrought  in  a  loom,  about 
a  hundred  years  ago,  by  a  weaver  in  Dunferm- 
line,  named  Inglis  :  it  has  no  seam  ;  arid  every 
thing  was  completed  without  aid  from  the  needle, 
excepting  a  button  for  the  neck. 

E.  Oh,  mamma,  I  should  like  to  see  that ! 
He  must  have  been  very  clever  !  Do  you  re- 
member any  other  use  which  has  been  made  of 
flax? 


80  NEW    ZEALAND    FLAX. 

Mrs.  E.  The  flax  of  New  Zealand  has,  of  late, 
attracted  great  attention,  both  in  this  country 
and  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  From  it  the  na- 
tives fabricate  not  only  their  fishing-lines  and 
nets,  and  such  other  cordage  as  they  require,  but 
also  the  cloaks  or  mats  which  form  their  cloth- 
ing. It  is  of  a  silky  fineness,  and  superior  to 
anything  we  possess.  It  springs  up  from  the 
earth  in  bunches  or  tufts,  with  sedge-like  leaves, 
and  bearing,  on  a  long  stalk,  pale  yellow  flow- 
ers, which  give  place  to  long  roundish  pods,  fill- 
ed with  very  thin,  shining,  black  seeds.  In 
France,  some  of  this  species  has  been  cultivated 
in  the  open  air  with  great  success.  It  grew  to 
the  height  of  more  than  seven  feet,  the  stalks  be- 
ing above  three  inches  in  circumference  at  the 
base,  and  tapering  towards  the  top.  On  one 
stalk,  there  were  a  hundred  and  nine  flowers,  of 
a  greenish  yellow  color,  and  some  very  strong 
ropes  were  made  from  the  leaves,  whence  flax 
was  obtained  by  a  simple  process. 

F.  And  do  you  know  how  they  prepare  the 
flax  in  New  Zealand  1 

Mrs.  E.  After  having  cut  it  down,  and  brought 
it  home  green  in  bundles,  the  natives  scrape  it 
with  a  large  muscle-shell,  and  take  the  heart  out 
of  it,  splitting  it  with  the  nails  of  their  thumbs, 
which,  for  that  purpose,  they  keep  very  long. 
But  it  would  seem  that  they  have  latterly  made 
instruments  for  dressing  the  flax,  not  very  unlike 
those  of  our  own  wool-combers.  The  outside 
they  throw  away,  and  the  rest  they  spread  out  for 
several  days  in  the  sun  to  dry,  which  makes  it 
as  white  as  snow.  They  spin  it  in  a  double 


CAMBRIC.  81 

thread,  with  the  hand  on  the  thigh,  and  then 
work  it  into  mats,  also  by  the  hand  ;  three  women 
may  work  at  a  mat  at  one  time.  Mr.  Nicholas 
saw  the  wife  of  a  chief,  on  one  occasion,  employ- 
ed in  weaving.  The  mat  on  which  she  was  en- 
gaged was  of  open  texture ;  and  she  performed 
her  work  with  wooden  pegs  stuck  in  the  ground 
at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  to  which, 
having  tied  the  threads  that  formed  the  woof, 
she  took  six  threads  with  the  two  composing  the 
warp,  knotting  them  carefully  together.  It  was 
astonishing,  he  says,  with  what  dexterity  ami 
quickness  she  handled  the  threads,  and  how  well 
executed  was  her  performance.  He  was  assured 
that  another  mat  which  he  saw,  woven  with  elab- 
orate ingenuity  and  elegance,  could  not  have 
been  manfactured  in  less  time  than  between  two 
and  three  years. 

At  Cambray,  a  city  of  France,  the  beautiful 
linen  called  cambric  was  first  manufactured ; 
and,  for  many  years,  England  spent  in  its  pur- 
chase not  less  than  $  1 ,000,000  per  annum.  From 
this  vegetable,  too,  the  lace  of  Brussels,  Valen- 
ciennes, Lisle,  Mechlin,  Normandy,  &/c.,  has 
been  obtained.  The  seeds  supply  birds  with 
food,  and  yield  an  oil  which  is  useful  as  a  medi- 
cine, and  is  also  employed  by  artists.  The 
cakes,  made  of  the  husks  after  the  oil  is  squeez- 
ed out,  are  used  to  fatten  cattle ;  the  dust  is  an 
excellent  manure;  and,  indeed,  the  purposes  to 
which  flax  is  applied  are  too  various  tot  enumer- 
ate. 

E.  Thank  you,  dear  mamma ;  I  should  never 
have  thought  of  hearing  so  much,  and  so  much 


82        HEMP CORDAGE    OF    A    MAN-OF-WAR. 

that  is  curious  too,  about  the  little  plant  called 
flax ;  but  you  know  that  is  only  one  wonderful 
thing,  and,  therefore,  I  am  in  great  hopes  that 
others  are  to  come. 

Mrs.  E.  Another  I  will  mention  is  hemp. 
The  Phoenicians,  so  famous  for  their  achieve- 
ments in  navigation,  are  thought  to  have  first 
discovered  its  use  in  forming  cables  and  tackle 
for  their  ships.  Isaiah  spoke  of  them  when  he 
mentioned  *  the  merchant  city,  the  mart  of  na- 
tions, whose  merchants  are  princes,  and  whose 
traffickers  are  the  honorable  of  the  earth.' 
Pliny  states  that  the  hemp  which  was  found  in 
some  parts  of  Italy,  and  near  Rosea,  in  the 
Sabines'  country,  grew  as  high  as  shrubs,  and 
even  in  the  woods,  without  the  labor  of  sowing. 
The  Romans  gathered  the  seed  before  the  stalks ; 
when  ripe  in  the  autumn  it  was  rubbed  out  and 
dried  in  the  sun,  the  wind,  or  in  smoke ;  and 
the  stalks  were  not  plucked  out  of  the  earth 
till  after  the  vintage.  It  was  then  the  work  of 
the  husbandman  to  peel  and  cleanse  it,  and  sep- 
arate carefully  the  best  from  the  worst.  To 
Britons  this  plant  is  of  great  importance>  as  it 
forms  the  sails  and  tackle  of  our  vessels,  from 
the  huge  cable  of  the  Asia,  which  you  saw  after 
it  came  from  Navarino,  to  the  net  of  the  fisher- 
man, which  you  have  noticed  when  on  the 
northern  or  the  southern  coast. 

F.  What  a  quantity  of  hemp,  papa,  must  be 
required  for  a  man-of-war  I 

Mr.  E.  The  sails  and  cordage  of  a  first-rate 
require  180,000  pounds  of  rough  hemp  for  their 
construction ;  five  acres  of  land  are  required  to 


PROCESS    OF    ROPE-MAKING.  83 

produce  a  ton  of  hemp ;  thus,  such  a  vessel  con- 
sumes a  year's  produce  of  424  acres  of  land. 

F.  I  am  quite  astonished  !  Can  you  tell  me, 
papa,  how  a  rope  is  made  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  singular  process;  the  first 
business  is  hatchelling  the  hemp,  or  combing 
out  the  short  fibres,  and  placing  the  long  ones 
parallel  to  each  other.  Then  the  hemp  is  spun 
into  yarns ;  and  here,  it  must  be  remembered, 
as  well  as  throughout  the  making  of  the  cable, 
the  various  fibres  of  the  hemp  should  bear  an 
equal  strain,  which  it  is  difficult  to  secure, 
because  the  twisting  deranges  the  parallel  posi- 
tion of  the  fibres.  Each  fibre,  as  it  is  twisted, 
ties  the  others  together,  so  as  to  form  a  contin- 
ued line,  and  it  bears,  at  the  same  time,  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  strain ;  and  so  does  each 
alternately.  Next,  the  yarns  are  to  be  made. 
Warping  them  is  stretching  them  to  a  certain 
length ;  and  for  the  same  reason  that  so  much 
attention  is  paid  to  arranging  the  fibres  for  the 
yarns,  great  care  must  be  taken  in  managing 
the  yarns  for  the  strands,  which  are  then  to  be 
formed.  The  hardening,  by  twisting,  is  also  an 
essential  part  of  the  process,  for,  without  this, 
the  rope  would  be  little  better  than  parallel 
fibres  of  hemp;  and  each  yarn,  and  each  strand, 
as  it  is  twisted  or  hardened,  is  so  arranged  that, 
when  drawn  into  the  cable,  all  the  parts  may,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  resist  the  strain  in  an  equal 
degree.  When  we  conversed  some  time  ago  on 
'  Mechanics,'*  I  said  that  the  tendons  of  the  hu- 

*See  <  Art  in  Nature,'  p.  10. 


84  TENDONS    OF    THE    BODY. 

man  body  were  better  made  than  the  best 
cables  ;  and  now  I  can  show  you  this  more  fully. 
A  tendon  consists  of  a  strong  cord,  apparently 
fibrous,  but  which  may  be  separated  into  lesser 
cords;  and  these  can  be  shown  to  consist  of 
cellular  membrane,  which  gives  firmness  to  all 
the  textures  of  the  human  frame.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  cords  of  which  the  larger  tendon 
consists  do  not  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  nor  are 
they  simply  twisted  like  the  strands  of  a  rope ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  are  most  admirably  plaited 
or  interwoven  together,  in  a  way  which  could 
not  be  imitated  in  cordage  by  the  turning  of  a 
wheel.  In  a  rope  the  strands  cannot  resist  the 
strain  equally,  but  the  tendon  can.  Patent 
cables  have  been  produced  more  nearly  resem- 
bling the  animal  structure  than  others ;  but  the 
tendon  has  still  its  superiority,  because  its  artifi- 
cer is  God  ! 

F.  Papa,  I  remember  many  cases  you  have 
mentioned,  in  which  there  is  a  resemblance  to 
this.  What  else  is  hemp  used  for  ?  —  and  which 
is  the  best  ? 

Mr.  E.  That  which  grows  in  England  is 
stronger  than  what  is  produced  in  any  other 
country.  Suffolk  is  the  principal  county  where 
hemp  is  grown  and  manufactured.  The  cloth 
made  from  it  is  more  durable  and  warmer  than 
the  flaxen  linen,  and  it  becomes  also  whiter  by 
age  and  use.  The  sheeting  imported  from 
Russia  has  one  advantage,  for,  being  drawn 
from  the  distaff,  the  fibres  are  longer,  and  le^s 
crossed,  than  those  in  the  thread  made  by  ma- 
chinery. Hemp  is  said  to  draw  away  insects 
Ithat  feed  on  other  vegetables.  In  many  parts  of 


HISTORY  OF  COTTON.  85 

the  Continent  a  belt  of  hemp  is  sown  round  the 
gardens,  or  any  particular  spot  which  is  wished 
to  be  preserved  from  flies  or  caterpillars.  The 
common  height  of  the  plant  is  from  five  to  six 
feet.  In  Catalonia  it  has  been  seen  seven  feet 
high.  In  Alsace  it  is  often  more  than  twelve 
feet  high,  and  upwards  of  three  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. Now,  mamma,  suppose  we  try  and 
give  some  account  of  cotton. 

Mrs.  E.  I  was  thinking  of  doing  so,  and,  if 
you  please,  I  will  begin.  Solomon  obtained  a 
branch  of  this  plant  from  Tyre.  Alexander 
sowed  its  seed  in  the  city  to  which  he  gave  his 
name,  and  Constantine  transplanted  it  into  Con- 
stantinople. Edward  the  First  planted  it  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames  about  the  year  1296 ;  but 
perhaps  papa  can  go  much  farther  back  —  if  so, 
I  will  pause  a  few  moments. 

Mr.  E.  Pliny  states,  that  in  the  higher  parts 
of  Egypt,  towards  Arabia,  there  grows  a  shrub 
or  bush  which  produces  cotton.  He  says,  the 
plant  is  small,  and  bears  a  fruit  resembling  the 
bearded  nut,  or  filberd,  out  of  the  inner  shell  or 
husk  of  which  the  downy  cotton  breaks  forth, 
which  is  easily  spun ;  and  is  superior,  for  white- 
ness and  softness,  to  any  flax  in  the  world.  Of 
this  cotton  the  Egyptian  priests  delighted  to 
have  their  robes  made.  He  says,  also,  that,  in 
an  island  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  there  were  cotton- 
trees  that  produced  fruit  as  large  as  quinces,, 
which  opened  when  ripe,  and  were  full  of  down, 
from  which  was  made  fine  and  costly  cloth,  like 
linen.  Virgil,  too,  seems  to  refer  to  the  same 
plants,  wheH  he  speaks  of — 
7* 


THE    COTTON-TREE, 

*  Ethiopian  forests  bearing  wool, 

Or  leaves  from  \v hence  the  Seres  fleeces  pull.' 

The  silk-cotton*  is  now  to  be  met  with  in  every 
village  in  Sumatra.  In  appearance,  this  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  raw  materials  which  the 
hand  of  nature  has  presented.  Its  fineness, 
gloss,  and  delicate  softness,  renders  it  to  the 
sight  and  touch  much  superior  to  the  produce  of 
the  silk-worm ;  but,  such  is  its  brittleness  and 
shortness,  that  it  is  considered  unfit  for  the  reel 
and  loom,  and  is  only  used  for  stuffing  matresses 
and  pillows.  The  tree  is  a  remarkable  one. 
Some  travellers  have  called  it  the  umbrella-tree. 
Mr.  Marsden  compares  it  to  the  piece  of  furni* 
ture  we  call  a  dumb-waiter,  consisting  of  a  gra- 
dation of  circular  shelves  on  one  axis. 

Mrs.  E.  There  are  several  species  of  the  cot- 
ton-tree. The  common  Levant  cotton,  which  is 
cultivated  in  several  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
becomes,  in  six  months,  as  large  as  a  European 
quince.  It  bears  rich  sulphur-colored  flowers, 
which  are  very  large  and  beautiful.  After  they 
fall,  a  head  of  seed  appears,  which,  when  it 
comes  to  maturity,  bursts  open,  scatters  its  con- 
tents, and  discovers  the  white  cotton.  In  China, 
the  variety  is  particularly  cultivated  that  prcn 
duces  the  cloth  called  Nankeen.  The  down 
covering  the  seed  is  called  cotton-wool,  which  is 
white  in  the  common  plant,  but  in  this  it  has  the 
tinge  it  preserves  when  spun  and  woven  into 
cloth.  In  India,  your  favorite  insects,  Emma, 
find  singular  habitations.  On  one  cotton-tree, 

*Bombax  cliba. 


VALUE    OF    COTTON.  87 

say  some  recent  travellers,  a  gentleman  counted 
a  hundred  and  eighty  distinct  hives,  belonging 
to  as  many  swarms.  It  might,  indeed,  be  called 
*  a  realm  of  bees/  comprehending  so  many  '  tow- 
ered cities/  filled  with  the  '  busy  hum  '  of  their 
industrious  population.  The  natives  take  these 
nests  in  the  night-time,  by  making  a  fire  under 
the  tree :  they  ascend  the  stem  wrapped  in  a 
thick  woollen  cloth,  and  when  they  have  reached 
the  boughs,  they  cut  off  the  combs,  leaving  them 
to  fall  upon  the  ground.  The  Barbadoes  cotton- 
tree  has  a  stem  from  six  to  fifteen  feet  high,  is 
propagated  by  seed,  set  in  rows,  about  five  feet 
asunder,  and  produces  two  crops  annually. 
Each  plant  is  reckoned  to  yield  about  a  pound 
weight.  When  the  pods  are  nearly  expanded, 
the  wool  is  picked,  and  laid  in  small  quantities 
on  a  machine  made  with  two  or  three  rollers ; 
whence  it  falls  into  a  sack  placed  underneath, 
and  leaves  the  seeds  behind.  The  cotton  is 
then  carefully  picked,  cleaned,  and  stowed  in 
bags,  where  it  is  well  trodden  down,  that  it  may 
be  close  and  compact ;  the  marketable  weight  of 
each  being  three  hundred  pounds.  An  acre 
produces,  on  an  average,  nearly  that  quantity. 
But  papa  can  tell  you  a  great  deal  about  its 
manufacture.  When  I  have  listened  once  more, 
I  shall  be  better  acquainted  with  it  than  I  am. 

Mr.  E.  As  cotton  is  easily  grown  and  collect- 
ed, the  patient  industry  and  simple  habits  of  the 
people  by  whom  it  was  cultivated  enabled  them 
to  send  to  Europe  their  manufactured  stuffs,  of 
a  fine  and  durable  quality,  even  from  the  time  of 
the  ancient  Greeks.  Before  the  discovery,  how- 


MANUFACTURE    OF    COTTON. 

ever,  of  the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  cotton  goods  were  very  costly  in 
Europe.  M.  Sayvvell  observes  that,  though  cot- 
ton stuffs  were  cheaper  than  silk,  which  was 
formerly  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold,  they  still 
could  only  be  purchased  by  the  most  wealthy, 
and  that,  could  a  Grecian  lady  awake  from  her 
sleep  of  two  thousand  years,  her  astonishment 
would  be  unbounded  to  see  a  simple  country  girl 
clothed  with  a  gown  of  printed  cotton,  a  muslin 
kerchief,  and  a  colored  shawl. 

JS.  Why,  papa,  everybody  may  see  that  now- 
a-days ;  it  was  only  yesterday  that  Ruth,  when 
she  went  out  with  Edward,  had  all  of  them  on 
new  ;  and  Jane  has  got  another  new 

Mr.  E.  That  will  do,  my  dear;  fine  things,  as 
well  as  new  ones,  are  far  too  common.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  France  began  to  manufac- 
ture into  stuffs  the  raw  cotton  imported  from  In- 
dia, as  Italy  had  done  a  hundred  years  before. 
A  cruel  act  of  tyranny  drove  the  best  French 
workmen,  who  were  Protestants,  into  England, 
and  we  thus  learned  the  manufacture.  The 
same  act  of  despotism  caused  the  settlement  of 
silk  manufacturers  in  Spitalfields.  We  did  not 
make  any  considerable  progress  in  the  art,  nor 
did  we  use  cotton  exclusively  in  making  up  the 
goods.  The  warp,  or  longitudinal  threads  of  the 
cloth,  were  of  flax ;  the  weft  only  was  of  cotton  ; 
for  we  could  not  twist  it  hard  enough,  by  hand, 
to  serve  both  purposes.  This  weft  was  spun  en- 
tirely by  hand,  with  a  distaff  and  spindle — as  it  is 
still  done  by  the  natives  of  India.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  disadvantages,  our  manufacture  con- 


COTTON-SPINNING.  89 

tinued  to  increase,  so  that,  about  1760,  though 
there  were  fifty  thousand  spindles  at  work  in 
Lancashire  alone,  the  weavers  found  the  great- 
est difficulty  in  procuring  a  sufficient  supply  of 
thread.  Neither  weaving  nor  spinning  were  then 
carried  on  in  large  factories.  They  were  domes- 
tic occupations :  the  women  of  a  family  worked 
at  the  distaff  or  hand-wheel  ;  and  there  were 
two  operations  necessary  in  this  department. 
Roving,  or  coarse  spinning,  reduced  the  carded 
cotton  to  the  thickness  of  a  quill,  and  the  spinner 
afterwards  drew  out  and  twisted  the  roving  into 
weft  fine  enough  for  the  weaver  :  English  cotton 
goods  were,  therefore,  very  dear,  and  had  but 
little  variety.  The  cloth  made  of  flax  and  cot- 
ton was  called  fustian  ;  and  we  still  received  the 
calicos  and  printed  cottons  from  India.  But  an 
amazing  change  was  about  to  take  place.  Rich- 
ard Arkwright,  of  Preston,  invented,  in  1769,  the 
principal  part  of  the  machinery  for  spinning  cot- 
ton, and  thus  gave  bread  to  about  two  millions  of 
people  instead  of  fifty  thousand;  and,  assisted  by 
subsequent  inventions,  raised  the  importation  of 
cotton-wool  from  India  from  less  than  two  mil- 
lions of  pounds  per  annum,  to  two  hundred  mil- 
lions; set  in  motion  six  millions  of  spindles,  in- 
stead of  fifty  thousand  ;  and  increased  the  annual 
produce  of  the  manufacture  from  two  hundred 
thousand  to  thirty-six  million  pounds  sterling ! 

F.  Amazing,  papa  !  —  amazing  !  But  how  did 
he  do  this? 

Mr.  E.  He  asked  himself  whether  it  was  not 
possible,  instead  of  a  wheel  which  spins  a  single 
thread  of  cotton  at  a  time,  yielding  about  two 
ounces  of  thread  in  twenty-four  hours,  to  spin 


90  RICHARD    ARKWRIGHT. 

the  same  material  on  a  great  number  of  wheels, 
from  which  many  hundred  threads  might  issue 
at  the  same  moment.  This,  at  length,  he  ac- 
complished. But  how  could  a  machine  do  the 
work  of  fingers  ?  I  will  tell  you.  Suppose  the 
cotton- wool  to  be  carded  ;  that  is,  so  combed  and 
prepared  as  to  be  formed  into  a  long  untwisted 
line  about  the  thickness  of  a  man's  finger  ;  and 
this,  when  introduced  into  the  machine  I  am 
about  to  describe,  is  called  a  roving,  the  old  name 
in  hand-spinning.  Now,  to  make  this  roving  in- 
to a  thread,  the  fibres,  which  are  mostly  curled 
up,  and  lie  in  all  directions,  must  be  stretched  out 
and  laid  lengthways,  side  by  side,  pressed  togeth- 
er so  as  to  give  them  a  more  compact  form,  and 
twisted  so  as  to  unite  them  all  firmly  together. 
To  do  this,  Arkwright  employed  two  pair  of 
small  rollers,  one  being  placed  at  a  little  distance 
before  the  other ;  the  lower  roller,  too,  in  each 
pair,  was  furrowed  lengthways,  and  the  upper 
one  was  covered  with  leather  ;  so  that,  as  they 
revolved  in  contact  with  each  other,  they  might 
take  fast  hold  of  the  cotton  which  passes  between 
them  :  when,  then,  a  roving  is  put  between  the 
first  pair  of  rollers,  the  effect  was  merely  to  press 
it  into  a  more  compact  form  ;  but,  as  soon  as  it 
has  passed  through  this,  it  is  received  between 
the  second  pair,  and,  as  these  revolve  with  great- 
er celerity  than  the  first,  they  draw  the  roving  for- 
wards with  greater  rapidity  than  it  is  given  out  by 
the  former.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  roving  is 
lengthened  in  passing  from  one  pair  to  the  other  ; 
and  the  fibres  of  which  it  is  composed  are  drawn 
out  and  laid  lengthways,  side  by  side  ;  the  increase 


COTTON-SPINNING    MACHINERY.  91 

of  length  being  exactly  proportioned  to  the  in- 
creased velocity  of  the  second  pair  of  rollers. 

F.  Does  only  one  roving  pass  at  a  time,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  No,  my  dear,  two  or  more  are  gener- 
ally united  ;  and  thus,  suppose  two  are  introduc- 
ed, and  that  the  second  pair  of  rollers  move  twice 
as  fast  as  the  first,  the  new  roving  formed  of  the 
two  will  be  exactly  twice  the  length  of  the  origin- 
al ones.  But  its  parts  will  be  very  differently 
arranged,  and  its  fibres  will  be  drawn  out  longi- 
tudinally, and  will  be  much  better  fitted  for  form- 
ing a  thread.  This  operation  of  doubling  and 
drawing  is  repeated  as  often  as  necessary,  and 
the  requisite  degree  of  twist  is  given  by  a  ma- 
chine similar  to  the  spindle  and  fly  of  the  com- 
mon flax-wheel.  The  fineness  with  which  the 
cotton  thread  can  be  drawn  out,  by  this  machine- 
ry, may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  Mr.  John 
Pollard,  of  "Manchester,  spun,  in  1792,  no  fewer 
than  two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  hanks  of 
yarn,  forming  a  thread  upwards  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-two  miles  in  length,  from  a  single 
pound  of  raw  cotton.  Of  the  rapidity  with  which 
some  portions  of  the  machinery  work  you  may 
judge  when  I  tell  you,  that  the  very  finest  thread, 
which  is  used  in  making  lace,  is  passed  through 
the  strong  flame  of  a  lamp,  which  burns  off  the 
fibres,  without  burning  the  thread  itself.  So 
quickly  indeed  does  it  go  that  no  motion  can  be 
perceived. 

E.  It  is  a  most  extraordinary  story,  papa :  who 
would  have  thought  of  machines  working  like 
fingers  ?  If  I  were  to  think,  aye,  till  I  was  as, 
old  as  Sally  Tomkins  at  the  lodge  —  and  she  is, 


92  MACHINES    MAKE    MACHINES. 

more  than  ninety  —  I  couldn't  have  told  how  it 
might  be  done. 

Mr.  E.  That  is  very  likely,  my  dear  ;  yet  the 
proper  employment  of  your  little  mind  will  be  of 
great  service  to  you  and  to  others.  But  perhaps 
you  will  be  still  more  surprised  when  I  say  that 
machines  have  been  invented  that  make  ma- 
chines that  make  the  cotton  thread  ;  for  there 
is  a  part  of  the  machinery  used  in  cotton-spinning 
called  a  reed.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  pieces 
of  wire,  set  side  by  side  in  a  frame,  resembling, 
in  some  degree,  a  comb  with  two  backs.  These 
reeds  are  various  as  to  length  and  fineness  ;  but 
they  all  consist  of  cross  pieces  of  wire,  fastened 
at  regular  intervals  between  longitudinal  pieces 
of  split  cane,  into  which  they  are  tied  with  wax- 
ed thread.  But  a  machine  does  now  the  work  of 
reed-making.  The  materials  enter  the  machine 
in  the  shape  of  two  or  three  yards  of  cane,  and 
many  yards  of  wire  and  thread  ;  and  the  machine 
cuts  the  wire,  places  each  small  piece  with  un- 
failing regularity  between  the  canes,  twists  the 
thread  round  the  cane,  with  a  knot  that  cannot 
slip,  every  time  a  piece  of  wire  is  put  in,  and  does 
several  yards  of  this  work  in  a  very  short  space  of 
time.  Another  machine  is  even  more  wonderful. 
The  cotton-wool  is  combed  by  circular  cards  of 
every  degree  of  fineness ;  and  the  card-making 
machine,  receiving  only  a  supply  of  leather  arid 
wire,  does  its  own  work  without  the  aid  of  hands. 
It  punches  the  leather,  cuts  the  wire,  passes  it 
through  the  leather,  clenches  it  behind,  and  gives 
it  the  proper  form  of  the  tooth  in  front ;  produc- 
ing a  complete  card  of  several  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence with  amazing  rapidity. 


PRINTING    IN   THE  SANDWICH    ISLANDS.      93 

E.  And,  papa,yow  have  seen  all  this!  When 
you  visit  Mr.  Grenville  at  Manchester  again,  do 
take  mamma,  and  Frederick,  and  me  !  Birds 
and  insects  are  very  ingenious ;  but  now  I  see 
even  wood  and  iron  are  made  quite  clever,  and 
do  the  work  of  hands  and  heads  ! 

Mr.  E.  I  have  seen  all  this,  my  love ;  and  by 
such  means  it  is  that  so  much  cotton  cloth  is 
made  in  England,  that  three  hundred  and  sixty 
million  yards  were  exported,  and  three  hundred 
and  ninety  million  were  retained  for  home  con- 
sumption, on  an  average  of  years  from  1824  to 
1828.  We  cannot  proceed  now  with  the  process 
of  printing,  but  I  may  give  you  an  account  of  the 
mode  in  a  distant  spot :  '  At  one  place,'  say 
Messrs.  Tyerman  and  Bennet,  '  in  the  house  of 
a  chief,  where  we  were  hospitably  entertained, 
we  had  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  the  method 
of  printing  flowers  and  other  ornamental  figures 
on  the  native  cloth.  Four  women  were  industri- 
ously employed  in  this  work.  The  design  is 
neatly  engraved  upon  the  sides  of  thin  pieces  of 
bamboo,  into  the  lines  of  which  the  colors  are  in- 
troduced by  dipping  them  into  calabashes  (cocoa- 
nut  shells)  containing  the  dye  in  a  liquid  state,  and 
the  superfluous  matter  is  thrown  off  from  the 
smooth  surface  by  striking  the  bamboo  sharply 
on  the  edge  of  these  vessels.  The  pattern  is 
then  carefully  transferred  to  the  cloth  by  pres- 
sure of  the  hand  ;  after  which  the  fibre  of  cocoa- 
husk  dipped  in  the  coloring  matter,  any  imper- 
fections are  supplied,  and  the  whole  is  delicately 
finished  off.  This  work  is  executed  with  con- 
siderable expedition  as  well  as  accuracy  ;  and  if 
8 


94  PROGRESS    OF    THE    ARTS. 

not  borrowed  from  the  suggestions  of  European 
visiters  (which  is  hardly  probable),  it  may  be 
said  that  printing,  as  well  as  engraving,  are 
orginal  inventions  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders, 
both  being  used  in  this  ingenious  process.' 

Mrs.  E.  The  mode  adopted  in  this  country  is 
too  complicated  for  explanation  now  ;  but  inge- 
nuity and  industry  are  in  all  directions  perform- 
ing wonders.  '  In  England,'  says  Dr.  Arnott,  '  a 
man  of  small  fortune  may  cast  his  regards  around 
him,  and  say  with  truth  and  exultation,  '  I  am 
lodged  in  a  house  that  affords  me  conveniences 
and  comforts  which  even  a  king  could  not  com- 
mand some  centuries  ago.  There  are  ships 
crossing  the  seas  in  every  direction,  to  bring  what 
is  useful  to  me  from  all  parts  of  the  earth.  In 
China,  men  are  gathering  the  tea-leaf  for  me  ; 
in  America,  they  are  planting  cotton  for  me ;  in 
the  West  India  Islands,  they  are  preparing  my 
sugar  and  my  coffee ;  in  Italy,  they  are  feeding 
silk-worms  for  me  ;  in  Saxony,  they  are  shearing 
the  sheep  to  make  me  clothing;  at  home,  power- 
ful steam-engines  are  spinning  and  weaving  for 
me,  and  making  cutlery  for  me,  and  pumping  the 
mines,  that  minerals  useful  to  me  may  be  pro- 
cured. My  patrimony  was  small,  yet  I  have 
post-coaches  running  day  and  night,  on  all  the 
roads,  to  carry  my  correspondence  ;  I  have  roads, 
and  canals,  and  bridges,  to  bear  the  coal  for  my 
winter  fire :  nay,  I  have  protecting  fleets  and 
armies  around  my  happy  country,  to  secure  my 
enjoyments  and  repose.  Then  I  have  editors 
and  printers,  who  daily  send  me  an  account  of 
what  is  going  on  throughout  the  world,  among 


PROGRESS    OF    THE    ARTS.  95 

all  these  people  who  serve  me.  And  in  a  corner 
of  my  house  I  have  BOOKS  !  —  the  miracle  of  all 
my  possessions,  more  wonderful  than  the  wish- 
ing-cup  of  the  Arabian  tales ;  for  they  transport 
me  instantly,  not  only  to  all  places,  but  to  all 
times.  By  my  books,  I  can  conjure  up  before 
me,  to  vivid  existence,  all  the  great  and  good  men 
of  antiquity  ;  and,  for  my  individual  satisfaction, 
I  can  make  them  act  over  again  the  most  renown- 
ed of  their  exploits :  —  the  orators  declaim  for 
me ;  the  historians  recite ;  the  poets  sing :  in  a 
word,  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and  from  the 
beginning  of  time  until  now,  by  my  books  I  can 
be  where  I  please.  This  picture  is  not  over- 
charged, and  might  be  much  extended ;  such  be- 
ing the  miracle  of  God's  goodness  and  providence, 
that  each  individual  of  the  civilized  millions  that 
cover  the  earth  may  have'  —  and  it  might  have 
been  said,  by  such  simple  yet  wonderful  means 
as  we  have  been  describing, — <  nearly  the  same 
enjoyments  as  if  he  were  the  single  lord  of  all.' 
F.  Thank  you,  dear  papa  and  mamma,  a 
hundred  —  a  thousand  times. 


96     «  FLOWERS. 


THE  CONSERVATORY. 

f 

*  I  SHOULD  imagine,  from  the  expression  of  your 
countenance,  Emma,'  said  Mrs.  Elwood,  '  that 
you  have  just  been  thinking  of  something  very 
pleasing/ 

'  You  are  quite  right,  mamma/  was  the  reply  ; 
'  and  I  will  tell  you  what  it  was.  I  am  sure  you  re- 
member the  charming  day  we  had  when  we  vis- 
ited the  Colosseum.  What  a  fine  panorama,  too, 
we  saw !  And,  then,  how  pleased  we  were  when 
we  sat  in  front  of  the  Swiss  cottage ;  though,  you 
know,  I  did  not  like  the  eagle's  chain :  but  I  shall 
never  forget  when  you  opened  one  of  the  doors 
of  the  conservatory,  and  we  had  before  us  that 
beautiful  range  of  flowers,  with  the  fountain  at 
the  end,  sending  up  its  bright  streams,  which 
curled  and  curled,  and  fell  again  and  again.  —  Oh, 
I  do  n't  know  when  I  was  so  much  delighted  !' 

'  I  was  not  surprised  at  your  pleasure,  love,' 
said  Mrs.  Elwood ;  '  the  mind  that  could  not  en- 
joy such  a  scene  must  be  insensible  indeed ;  but 
you  have  just  anticipated  our  intention,  which  was 
to  resume  our  account  of  the  structure  of  plants, 
and  to  tell  you  something  about  flowers.  Papa, 
I  see,  is  quite  ready,  and  I  should  like  him  to  be- 
gin.' 

Mr.  E.  Flowers  are  among  the  most  exquisite 
objects  of  the  vegetable  world.  How  various 
their  forms  !  —  how  beautiful  their  tints  !  —  how 
delightful  their  perfumes  !  No  two  are  exactly 
alike  —  even  though  they  are  of  the  same  species, 
and  grow  on  the  same  stalk.  And,  then,  they 


THE    LILY.  97 

do  not  all  come  at  once ;  they  appear  in  a  well- 
ordered  succession  ;  and  thus,  short-lived  as  they 
are,  we  have  them  almost  all  the  year  round. 
First  comes  the  early  snow-drop,  like  '  a  little 
billet  flung  from  the  delicate  hand  of  Spring,  to 
command  the  departure  of  winter  ; '  the  crocus 
appears  next,  but,  in  its  timidity,  keeps  close  to 
the  earth  ;  then  rises  the  violet,  arrayed  in  beau- 
ty, with  the  polyanthus  and  auricula  as  her  court- 
ly attendants;  afterwards,  rain-bow-headed  tulips 
spring  forth  richly,  and  anemonies  follow  in 
their  train;  while  the  ranunculus,  lily,  carnation, 
and  the  queen-like  rose,  with  others  too  numer- 
ous to  be  told,  close  the  gay  and  lovely  proces- 
sion. 

Flowers  have  been  regarded,  from  early  times,  as 
expressive  of  certain  feelings  :  the  yellow-green, 
which  appears  at  the  falling  of  the  leaf,  was 
worn  in  chivalry  as  the  emblem  of  despair ;  brown 
is  considered  an  indication  of  sorrow ;  red,  of 
anger  ;  and  green,  of  tranquillity.  The  violet  is 
an  acknowledged  emblem  of  retiring  merit ;  the 
rose,  of  beauty  ;  the  aloe,  of  constancy  ;  the  palm, 
of  victory  ;  the  laurel,  of  honor  ;  and  the  lily  of 
the  valley  —  modestly  peeping  forth  from  her  ver- 
dant mantle,  and  shedding  her  sweetest  fragrance 
in  retirement  —  of  humility. 

Mrs.  E.  '  A  few  miles  from  Adowa,'  says  Mr. 
Salt,  in  his  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,  '  we  discover- 
ed a  new  and  beautiful  specimen  of  amaryllis, 
which  bore  from  ten  to  twelve  spikes  of  bloom  on 
each  stem,  as  large  as  those  of  the  belladonna, 
springing  from  one  common  receptacle.  The 
general  color  of  the  corolla  was  white,  and  eve- 


y»  ROSE    OF    PERSIA. 

ry  petal  was  marked  with  a  single  streak  of  bright 
purple  down  the  middle.  The  flower  was  sweet- 
scented,  and  its  smell,  though  much  more  pow- 
erful, resembled  that  of  the  lily  of  the  valley. 
The  superb  plant  excited  the  admiration  of  the 
whole  party  ;  and  it  brought  immediately  to  my 
recollection  the  beautiful  comparison  used  on  a 
particular  occasion  by  our  Saviour  :  —  'I  say  unto 
you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  array- 
ed like  one  of  these.' '  In  the  Song  of  Solomon 
we  read  of  '  lilies  dropping  down  sweet-smelling 
myrrh/  which  some  have  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
Persian  lily,  which  is  red,  and  always  bent  down- 
wards, and  disposed  like  a  crown  at  the  extremi- 
ty of  the  stem,  which  has  a  tuft  of  leaves  at  the 
top.  At  the  bottom  of  each  leaf  a  moisture  ap- 
pears, forming,  as  it  were,  a  white  pearl,  and 
gradually  distilling  very  clear  and  pure  drops  of 
water,  which  may  perhaps,  in  this  case,  be  call- 
ed myrrh. 

Mr.  E.  And  we  must  not  forget  the  rose  of 
Persia,  which  Sir  R.  K.  Porter  has  so  well  de- 
scribed. '  On  first  entering  the  bower  of  fairy 
land,  I  was  struck  by  the  appearance  of  two  rose- 
trees,  full  fourteen  feet  high,  laden  with  thou- 
sands of  flowers,  in  every  degree  of  expansion, 
and  of  a  bloom  and  delicacy  of  scent  that  imbued 
the  whole  atmosphere  with  the  most  exquisite 
perfume ;  indeed,  I  believe  that  in  no  country  of 
the  world  does  the  rose  grow  in  such  perfection 
as  in  Persia  —  in  no  country  is  it  so  cultivated 
and  prized  by  the  natives.  Their  gardens  and 
courts  are  crowded  with  its  plants,  their  rooms 
are  ornamented  with  vases  filled  with  its  gather- 


ROSE    OF   SHARON.  VftJ 

<ed  branches,  and  every  bath  strewed  with  the 
full-blown  flowers,  plucked  from  the  ever-replen- 
ished stems.  Even  the  humblest  individual,  who 
pays  a  piece  of  copper  money  for  a  few  whiffs  of 
a  kalioun,  or  pipe,  feels  a  double  enjoyment 
when  he  finds  it  stuck  with  a  bud  from  his  dear 
native  tree  ;  but  in  this  delicious  garden  of  Ne- 
gauvistan  the  eye  and  the  smell  were  not  the  on- 
ly senses  regaled  by  the  presence  of  the  rose  ;  the 
-ear  was  enchanted  by  the  wild  and  beautiful 
notes  of  the  multitude  of  nightingales,  whose 
warblings  seem  to  increase  in  melody  and  soft- 
ness with  the  unfolding  of  their  favorite  flowers  ; 
verifying  the  song  of  their  poet,  who  says, 
'  When  the  charms  of  the  bower  are  passed  away, 
the  fond  tale  of  the  nightingale  no  longer  ani- 
mates the  scene !  '  '  It  was  right  to  consecrate 
a  flower  so  lovely  as  the  rose  to  the  service  of  re- 
ligion. Solomon,  accordingly,  chose  it  to  repre- 
sent the  Redeemer,  when  he  said,  '  I  am  the 
rose  of  Sharon  ; '  and  Isaiah  gives  us  some  faint 
conception  of  the  change  to  be  produced  on  the 
moral  world  when  he  says,  that  '  the  wilderness 
shall  rejoice,  and  shall  blossom  as  the  rose.' 
Mamma  will  now  describe  some  parts  of  a  flower. 
Mrs.  E.  The  calyx,  or  flower-cup,  forms  a 
covering,  to  shelter  and  defend  the  bud  before  it 
expands.  Look,  it  consists  of  several  parts, 
vhich  resemble  small  leaves,  both  in  form  and 
color,  and  probably  act  in  the  same  manner. 
How,  this  part  varies,  so  that  in  the  hemlock  it 
is  a  fence,  in  the  hazel  a  catkin,  in  the  daffodil 
a  sheath,  in  the  oat  and  the  grasses  a  husk,  in 
mosses  a  veil,  in  mushrooms  a  curtain,  and  in 


100  BANQUETTING-IIALL    OF    INSECTS. 

the  polyanthus  a  cup.  Above  the  calyx  rises  the 
corolla,  the  colored  part  of  the  flower.  It  con- 
sists of  several  petals,  distinct  or  separate,  or  else 
forming  a  corolla  of  one  single  piece,  in  which 
case  the  flower  is  called  monopetalous.  When 
the  petals  first  expand,  they  still  serve  to  protect 
the  parts  in  the  centre,  and  also  reflect  the  sun's 
rays  on  them,  thus  rearing  them  as  in  a  hot- 
house. When  they  are  full  grown  this  heat  is 
no  longer  necessary ;  and,  as  light  and  air  are 
now  beneficial,  the  petals  expand,  leaving  these 
delicate  organs  to  enjoy  their  full  power. 

Mr.  E.  The  corolla  is  the  festive  hall  of  mul- 
titudes of  insects.  I  remember  a  naturalist  says, 
'  The  principal  flower  in  a  bouquet  was  a  car- 
nation, the  fragrance  of  which  led  me  to  enjoy 
it  frequently  and  near,  while  the  ear  was  con- 
stantly assailed  by  an  extremely  soft  but  agreea- 
ble murmuring  sound.  I  instantly  distended  the 
lower  part  of  the  flower,  and,  placing  it  in  a  full 
light,  could  discover,  by  a  glass,  troops  of  little 
insects  frisking  and  capering  with  wild  jollity 
among  the  narrow  pedestals  that  supported  its 
leaves,  and  the  little  threads  that  occupied  its 
centre.  What  a  fragrant  world  for  their  habita- 
tion !  What  a  perfect  security  from  all  annoy- 
ance in  the  deep  husk  that  surrounded  their 
scene  of  action  ! 

1  The  microscope,  on  this  occasion,  had  given 
what  nature  seemed  to  have  denied  to  the  objects 
contemplated.  The  base  of  the  flower  extended 
itself  to  a  vast  plain  ;  the  slender  stems  of  th> 
leaves  became  trunks  of  so  many  statelyc  edars; 
the  threads  in  the  middle  seemed  columns  c£ 


THE    NECTARY.  101 

massy  structure,  supporting  at  the  top  their  sev- 
eral ornaments ;  and  the  narrow  spaces  between 
were  enlarged  into  walks,  parterres,  and  terra- 
ces. 

*  On  the  polished  bottom  of  these,  brighter 
than  Parian  marble,  walked  alone,  in  pairs,  or  in 
large  companies,  the  winged  inhabitants,  stained 
with  living  purple,  and  with  a  glossy  gold  that 
would  have  made  all  the  labors  of  the  loom  con- 
temptible in  the  comparison.  There  were  the 
perfumed  groves,  the  more  than  myrtle  shades  of 
the  poet's  fancy  ;  here  the  happy  creatures  spent 
their  days  in  sportive  gaiety  ;  or,  in  the  triumph  of 
their  little  hearts,  skipped  after  one  another  from 
stem  to  stem  among  the  trees,  or  winged  their 
flight  to  the  close  shadow  of  some  broader  leaf, 
to  revel  undisturbed  in  the  heights  of  felicity.1 
*  Mrs.  E.  That  is,  indeed,  a  lively  description, 
my  dear,  of  the  tenants  of  a  flower.  At  the 
base  of  the  petals,  however,  I  wish  you  to  ob- 
serve, the  nectary  is  generally  situated,  so  called 
from  its  secreting  a  sweet  fluid  to  which  has  been 
given  the  name  of  nectar ;  and  which  may  often 
be  sucked  from  the  tube  of  the  honeysuckle. 
Many  insects  have  a  long  and  plaint  proboscis, 
or  trunk,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  this  grate- 
ful food,  among  which  that  of  the  Unicorn  Moth* 
is  very  remarkable.  It  carries  it  rolled  up  in 
concentric  circles,  and  occasionally  extends  it  to, 
above  three  inches  in  length.  This  trunk  con- 
sists of  joints  and  muscles,  and  its  movements 
seem  to  be  more  various  than  those  of  the  ele- 

*  Sphinx  con volvuli. 


102  VEGETATION. 

phant's  proboscis;  and,  near  its  termination,  it  is 
split  into  two  capillary,  or  hair-like,  tubes  :  thus 
it  robs  the  flowers  of  the  honey,  though  it  flies 
only  in  the  evening,  when  they  have  closed 
their  petals,  and  are,  consequently,  more  difficult 
of  access.  In  the  centre  of  the  flower  the  seed 
is  lodged.  It  is  enveloped  in  a  small  leaf,  which, 
instead  of  expanding  to  the  sun  and  air,  like  its 
neighboring  petals,  folds  itself  more  closely  round 
the  little  treasure  :  the  edges  of  the  two  opposite 
halves  of  the  leaf  being  thus  brought  into  con- 
tact, they  unite  and  grow  together,  and  the  leaf 
assumes  the  form  of  a  pod  or  vessel,  the  shape  of 
which  varies  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  leaf  was  folded  when  it  first  budded. 

Mr.  E.  We  :nay  form  an  idea  of  other  seeds 
by  the  structure  of  a  pea,  a  bean,  or  the  kernel 
of  a  melon  —  the  formation  being  nearly  the  same 
in  all.  Remove  the  covering  which  enfolds  a 
seed,  and  you  will  generally  perceive  two  pieces, 
called  lobes,  which  are  separated  with  ease,  and 
are  nothing  more  than  the  composition  of  a  kind 
of  meal  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant. 
At  the  top  of  the  lobes  is  the  bud,  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  stock  and  a  pedicle,  and  the  latter  will 
afterwards  be  the  root.  The  stem,  or  body  of 
the  plant,  is  sunk  a  little  into  the  inward  sub- 
stance of  the  seed,  and  the  pedicle,  or  small  root, 
first  appears,  when  the  seed  begins  to  germinate. 
The  pedicle  is  connected  with  the  lobes  by  two 
branching  tubes,  whose  ramifications  are  dispers- 
ed through  the  lobes,  from  which  they  derive  the 
necessary  support  for  the  young  plant.  The 
stock,  or  body  of  the  plant,  is  enclosed  by  two 


DESCENT    OF    THE    ROOT.  103 

leaves,  which  are  designed  for  its  preservation 
till  it  appears  above  the  ground.  These  two 
leaves  are  the  first  parts  of  the  plant  which  dis- 
engage themselves  from  the  seed,  and  are  the 
forerunners  of  the  trunk,  the  exceeding  delicacy 
of  whose  texture  they  protect  till  more  matured, 
and  then  fall  off.  After  the  tender  root  has  been 
nourished  for  some  time  by  the  lobes,  it  shoots 
in  various  directions  into  the  earth,  and  derives 
from  it  the  support  it  ceases  to  collect  from  the 
lobes.  All  seeds,  whether  small  or  large,  con- 
tain the  parts  now  mentioned,  in  some  way  or 
other,  wrapped  up  carefully  in  one  or  more  cov- 
erings, to  protect  the  whole  of  the  curious 
apparatus  enclosed.  The  seed  being  of  the  high- 
est importance,  it  is  more  defended  than  other 
parts,  as  in  the  esculent,  or  eatable  fruits,  by  soft, 
pulpy  substances  ;  as  in  the  leguminous  vegeta- 
bles, such  as  beans  and  peas,  by  thick  mem- 
branes ;  or,  as  in  the  nut,  by  a  bony  or  hard 
outer  skin,  called  the  shell.  When  the  seed  falls 
into  the  earth,  and  has  accumulated  sufficient 
moisture,  it  swells  and  bursts,  the  root  shoots 
downwards,  and  the  stem  rises  upwards.  If  any 
parts  are  destroyed  the  plant  is  injured,  but 
nature  will  restore  them  by  fresh  shoots :  the 
neck,  or  part  which  unites  the  stem  and  the  root, 
being  the  only  part  the  destruction  of  which 
proves  fatal. 

F.  Why,  papa,  does  the  stem  always  rise,  and 
the  root  descend  ? 

Mr.  E.  The  roots  grow  only  at  the  extremi- 
ties, and  these,  being  at  first  so  soft  as  to  be 
almost  liquid,  naturally  follow  the  direction  of 


104  CUSCUTA    EUROP.EA. 

gravity,  and  descend,  unless  they  meet  with  a 
stone  or  clod  of  earth  which  they  cannot  pene- 
trate, when  they  grow  laterally,  or  side-ways,  to- 
avoid  the  obstacle.  A  curious  experiment  was 
once  made,  to  see  if  it  was  gravity  which  makes 
the  roots  of  a  plant  descend.  Mr.  Knight  sowed 
seeds  in  moss  disposed  in  cavities,  arranged  on 
the  circumference  of  a  water-wheel.  The  cavi- 
ties were  open  on  both  sides,  so  that  the  root  and 
the  stem  might  germinate  at  either.  The  wheel 
was  then  made  to  revolve  one  hundred  and  sixty 
times  in  a  minute.  The  roots  always  struck  in 
the  direction  diverging  from  the  centre,  like  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel,  whence  he  concluded  that  in 
this  process  the  centrifugal  force,  or  the  tenden- 
cy to  fly  off  from  the  centre,  had  replaced  that  of 
gravity. 

Mrs.  E.  There  is,  however,  a  singular  plant,* 
the  seed  of  which  opens,  and  puts  forth  a  little 
spiral  body,  that  is,  winding  like  a  cork-screw, 
which  does  not  seek  the  earth  to  take  root,  but 
climbs  from  right  to  left  up  other  plants,  from 
which,  by  means  of  vessels,  it  draws  its  nourish- 
ment. The  little  spiral  body,  proceeding  from 
the  seed,  is  to  be  compared  with  the  fibres  which 
the  seeds  send  out  in  ordinary  cases ;  and  the 
comparison  ought  to  regard  both  the  form  of  the 
threads,  and  the  direction  they  take.  They  are 
straight,  this  is  spiral ;  they  shoot  downwards> 
this  points  upwards.  In  the  rule,  and  in  the 
exception,  the  design  is  equally  perceived. 

*  Cuscuta  Europaea. 


DISPERSION    OP    SEEDS.  105 

Mr.  E.  Plants  not  only  possess  a  proper 
organization  for  the  production  of  seed,  but  also 
means  for  its  dispersion  abroad.  Some  seeds 
have  a  tuft  of  light  soft  down,  such  as  those  of 
the  thistle,  dandelion, &,c.,  which  are  often  blown 
by  the  wind  to  a  considerable  distance.  Others 
have  wings,  which  have  been  known  to  carry 
them  fifty  miles  from  the  spot  that  gave  them 
birth.  The  seeds  of  the  various  species  of  vio- 
lets are  contained  in  a  capsule,  a  dry  hollow 
seed-vessel  with  a  single  cell,  but  consisting  of 
three  pieces  or  valves.  To  the  inner  part  of  each 
of  these  a  seed  is  attached,  and  it  remains  so  for 
some  time  after  the  valves,  in  the  process  of 
ripening,  have  separated  and  stood  open.  The 
sun's  heat  causes  the  sides  of  each  valve  to 
shrink,  and  then  the  edges  press  firmly  on  the 
seed,  which  is  not  only  extremely  smooth,  pol- 
ished, and  shining,  but  regularly  egg-shaped. 
Thus,  when  the  collapsing  or  shrinking  edge  of 
the  valve  slides  gradually  and  forcibly  down  over 
the  sloping  part  of  the  seed,  it  is  thrown  with  a 
jerk  to  a  considerable  distance.  It  is  remarka- 
ble, too,  that  the  capsule  hangs  drooping  before 
the  seed  is  ripe,  with  the  calyx  spread  over  it 
like  an  umbrella,  to  defend  it  from  the  rain  and 
dews,  which  would  retard  the  ripening  ;  but,  no 
sooner  is  this  completed,  than  the  capsule  be- 
comes almost  upright,  with  the  calyx  for  a  sup- 
port ;  and  thus  the  mechanism  for  scattering  the 
seeds  is  more  effective,  as  the  capsule  thus  rises 
higher  —  sometimes  more  than  an  inch.  ( Some 
ripe  capsules  of  a  fine  variety  of  heart's  ease/ 
says  Mr.  Rennie,  *  which  I  placed  in  a  shallow 
9 


106  THE    CYCLAYMEN THE  TREFOIL. 

paste-board  box,  in  a  drawer,  were  found  to  have 
projected  their  seeds  to  the  distance  of  twoj  feet. 
From  the  elevation  of  a  capsule,  therefore,  at  the 
top  of  a  tall  plant,  these  seeds  might  be  projected 
twice  or  thrice  that  distance.' 

E.  All  this  is  very  surprising ;  I  wonder 
whether  there  is  anything  else  as  curious  respect- 
ing seed  ? 

Mrs.  E.  Yes,  my  love,  two  or  three  facts  now 
occur  to  me.  When  the  seeds  of  the  cyclamen 
are  ripe,  the  stalk  of  the  flower  gradually  twists 
itself  spirally  downwards,  till  it  touches  the 
ground,  and,  forcibly  penetrating  the  earth-, 
lodges  its  seeds;  which,  being  found  not  to  grow 
in  any  other  situation,  are  thought  to  receive 
nourishment  from  the  parent  root.  The  subter- 
ranean trefoil,*  too,  also  buries  its  seed;  the 
globular  head  of  the  seed  penetrating  the  earth. 
This,  however,  may  be  only  intended  to  conceal 
the  seed  of  the  plant  from  the  ravages  of  birds, 
for  there  is  another  trefoil,t  a  globular,  wooly- 
headed  one,  which  has  a  curious  way  of  conceal- 
ing its  seeds ;  the  lower  florets  only  have  corols, 
and  are  fertile ;  the  upper  ones  wither  into  a  kind 
of  wool,  and,  forming  a  head,  completely  hide 
the  fertile  calyxes.  Before  we  pass  on,  I  may  just 
remark,  that  the  increase  from  a  seed  is  truly 
amazing.  That  of  a  globe-turn-ip  is  exceedingly 
minute  —  not  larger,  perhaps,  than  the  twentieth 
part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  yet,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  short  months,  this  seed  will  be 
formed,  by  the  soil  and  the  atmosphere,  into  a 
solid  bulb,  containing,  in  some  cases,  twenty- 
seven  millions  of  times  the  bulk  of  the  seed,  and 

*Trifolium  Subtorraneum.      t  Trifolium  Globosum. 


INCREASE    FROM    SEED.  107 

this  in  addition  to  a  considerable  bunch  of  leaves. 
The  number  of  seeds  produced  by  some  vegeta- 
bles is  also  very  astonishing  :  more  than  thirty 
thousand  have  been  found  in  a  single  head  of 
poppy.  In  the  great  cat's  tail  *  the  seeds  are 
blown  off  by  the  wind,  and,  no  doubt,  many  are 
lost ;  but  each  :spike  generally  bears  above  forty 
thousand  seeds ;  so  that  upon  three  spikes,  which 
each  plant  commonly  produces,  there  are  annu- 
ally more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
seeds.  The  Tobacco  t  has  been  known  to  pro- 
duce, on  one  plant,  three  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand  seeds ;  arid  the  yearly  produce  of  a 
single  stalk  of  spleen  wort  (a  kind  of  fern)  has 
been  estimated  at  a  million  ! 

E.  Most  wonderful,  mamma  !  — most  wonder- 
ful !  But  what  are  the  other  parts  of  a  flower  ?  * 

Mrs.  E.  From  the  seed-vessel  rises  a  little 
thread-like  stalk,  called  a  style,  which  supports  a 
small  spongy  substance,  denominated  the  stigma, 
and  these  three  parts  form  a  whole,  which  bears 
the  name  of  carpel.  A  single  carpel  forms  the 
pistil  of  some  flowers ;  but  pistils  are  generally 
composed  of  several  carpels,  which,  in  most 
flowers,  are  neatly  fitted  and  joined  together. 
Immediately  surrounding  the  pistil  are  the  sta- 
mens, each  of  which  consists  of  a  slender  fila- 
ment, or  thread,  supporting  a  little  bag  called  an 
anther,  which  is  filled  with  pollen,  a  species  of 
dust  or  powder.  The  anthers,  when  ripe,  burst, 
and,  being  more  elevated  than  the  stigma,  shed 
their  pollen  upon  it,  without  which  the  seed 

*  Typho  major.  \  Nieotiaua  Zabacum. 


108  THB    POLLEN. 

would  not  vegetate ;  and  thus  it  is  perfected. 
The  pollen  is  sometimes  conveyed  by  winged 
insects,  which,  in  penetrating,  by  means  of  their 
long  and  pliant  trunks,  the  recesses  of  the  corolla, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  nectar,  cover  their  downy 
wings  with  the  pollen  ;  they  then  bear  it  to  the 
next  flower,  on  which  they  alight ;  and,  in  work- 
ing their  way  to  the  nectary,  it  is  rubbed  off,  and 
falls  on  the  stigma.  Thus  they  compensate  the 
flower  for  stealing  its  honey.  In  Persia,  very 
few  of  the  date  and  palm  trees  under  culture 
have  stamens,  those  having  pistils  being  prefer- 
red as  alone  yielding  fruit.  In  the  season  of 
flowering,  the  peasants  gather  branches  of  the 
wild  palm-trees  whose  blossoms  contain  stamens, 
and  spread  them  over  those  which  are  cultivated, 
in  order  that  the  pollen  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  pistils,  and  render  the  seeds  fruitful.  In 
Italy  there  are  two  remarkable  palm-trees ;  the 
one,  situated  at  Otranto,  has  no  stamens ;  the 
other,  at  Brindisium,  which  is  almost  forty  miles 
distant,  has  no  pistils ;  consequently,  neither  of 
these  trees  bore  seed  ;  but  when,  after  the  growth 
of  many  years,  they  rose  above  the  trees  of  the 
neighboring  forests,  and  all  the  buildings  which 
intervened,  the  pollen  of  the  palm-tree  at  Brin- 
disium was  wafted  by  the  wind  to  the  pistils  of 
that  at  Otranto,  and,  to  the  astonishment  of  every 
one,  the  latter  bore  fruit. 

Mr.  E.  The  only  part  of  the  flower  which 
now  requires  to  be  adverted  to  is  the  stalk,  which 
is  called  a  peduncle,  or  pedunculus.  It  gener- 
ally expands  a  little  at  the  top,  and  forms  a  com- 
mon base  by  which  the  several  parts  of  the 


THE    DAISY.  109 

flower  are  connected  together.  The  peduncle  is 
not  always  crowned  by  a  flower  ;  it  often  branches 
out  into  a  number  of  smaller  flower-stalks,  called 
pedicles,  each  of  which  supports  a  flower.  The 
common  daisy  deserves  particular  attention;  for, 
if  the  parts  that  are  within  the  cup  are  pulled 
off,  and  examined  with  a  glass,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  yellow  spots  are  the  tops  of  little  flow- 
ers; and,  if  one  of  these  is  opened,  it  will  be 
seen  that  each  little  blossom  is  shaped  like  a 
funnel,  with  five  divisions  in  its  border,  and  that 
the  whole  is  most  exquisitely  constructed. 

Mrs.  E.  I  should  like  you,  Emma,  to  associate 
with  that  simple  flower  the  charming  lines  writ- 
ten by  Montgomery  on  a  daisy  in  full  bloom  on 
Christmas  day.  I  have  just  thought  of  some  of 
them,  and  I  will  show  you  an  air  to  which  they 
may  be  sung  delightjjplly. 

THE    DAISY. 

'  There  is  a  flower,  a  little  flower, 

With  silver  crest  and  golden  eye, 
That  welcomes  every  changing  hour, 

And  weathers  every  sky. 

The  prouder  beauties  of  the  field 

In  gay  but  quick  succession  shine, 
Race  after  race  their  honors  yield  — 

They  flourish  and  decline. 

But  this  small  flower,  to  nature  dear, 
•          While  moons  and  stars  their  courses  run, 
Wreathes  the  whole  circle  of  the  year, 
Companion  of  the  sun. 

The  lambkin  crops  its  crimson  gem, 
The  wild-bee  murmurs  on  Ha  breast, 

The  blue-fly  bends  its  pensile  stem, 
Light  o'er  the  sky-lark's  nest. 

'Tis  Flora's  page  :  in  every  place, 

In  every  season,  fresh  and  fair, 
It  opens  with  perennial  grace, 

And  blossoms  every  where. 

9* 


110  ODORS. 

On  waste  and  woodland,  rock  and  plain, 

Its  humble  buds  unheeded  rise : 
The  rose  has  but  a  summer  reign, 

The  daisy  never  dies.' 

E.  That  is  very  sweet  indeed,  mamma  :  you 
will  tell  me  the  air,  and  that  I  know  will  be  de- 
lightful too  ;  and  I  will  play  and  sing  it  as  well  as 
—  as  well  as  ever  I  can.  But  what  makes  the 
odor  of  flowers  ? 

Mrs.  E.  The  basis  of  all  the  vegetable  per- 
fumes is  formed  by  the  volatile  or  essential  oils, 
which  are  contained,  more  or  less,  in  every  part 
of  the  plant,  except  the  seed.  They  are  very 
plentiful  in  the  leaves  of  geraniums,  of  mint  and 
thyme,  and  all  the  sweet-smelling  herbs  ;  in  san- 
dal and  cedar-wood ;  and  in  the  rind  of  fruits,  as 
in  oranges  and  lemons  ;  from  which  they  may  be 
extracted  by  the  slightest  pressure.  They  vary 
greatly  as  to  consistence,  sofRe  being  as  thick  as 
butter,  whilst  others  are  as  fluid  as  water.  To 
prepare  them  for  .perfumes  or  essences,  they  are 
first  properly  purified,  and  then  mixed  with  a 
large  proportion  of  water,  as  is  often  done  with 
peppermint ;  or  distilled  with  spirit  of  wine,  as  is 
the  case  with  lavender-water. 

E.  I  have  seen  you,  mamma,  take  spots  of 
grease  out  of  cloth  or  silk  by  some  of  these 
things  :  pray  how  is  that  done  ? 

Mrs.  E.  Volatile  oils,  and  the  spirit  in  which 
they  are  distilled,  will  dissolve  wax,  tallow,  sper- 
maceti, and  resins ;  if,  then,  any  of  these  sub- 
stances make  the  spot,  they  will  combine  with  it, 
and  remove  it. 


FLOATING   GARDENS.  Ill 

F.  I  love  a  garden  dearly,  papa.  I  am  sur- 
prised that  every  body  does  not.  How  strange  I 
thought  it  when  Mr.  Kerrison  said  the  other  day 
that  he  did  not  walk  in  his  once  a  month ! 

Mr.  E.  You  will  find  the  tastes  of  people  very 
different,  Frederick.  Some  have  no  pleasure  in 
the  process  of  vegetation,  and,  were  their  grounds 
left  to  themselves,  all  would  be  wildness  and  dis- 
order. Others,  on  the  contrary,  owe  much  of 
their  enjoyment  to  flowers  and  fruits,  and  to  pos- 
sess it  surmount  many  obstacles.  In  China,  even 
the  steepest  mountains  are  brought  into  cultiva- 
tion ;  they  are  cut  into  terraces,  resembling,  at  a 
distance,  immense  pyramids,  divided  by  numer- 
ous steps  or  stories;  and,  what  is  really  worthy 
our  admiration,  the  water,  which  runs  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  is  raised  from  terrace  to  ter- 
race to  the  very  tfp,  by  means  of  a  portable 
chain-pump,  which  may  be  carried  about  and 
worked  by  two  men.  Reservoirs  are  also  dug 
on  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  from  which  the 
rain-water  is  let  down  to  irrigate  the  sides.  In 
such  places  as  are  steep,  or  too  barren,  pines  and 
larches  are  planted.  But  what  would  you  think 
of  floating  gardens  1 

F.  Why,  papa,  that  would  be  strange ! 

Mr.  E.  The  Chinampas,  or  floating  gardens  of 
Mexico,  are  justly  considered  objects  of  the 
greatest  curiosity.  Their  invention  is  said  to 
have  arisen  out  of  the  extraordinary  situation  in 
which  the  Aztecs  were  placed  on  the  conquest 
of  their  country  by  the  Tepanecan  nation,  when 
they  were  confined,  in  great  numbers,  to  the 
small  islands  on  the  lake,  and  were  driven  to 


112  FLOATING    GARDENS. 

exercise  great  ingenuity,  in  order  to  provide 
themselves  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food. 
Humboldt  conjectures  that  the  first  idea  of  them 
may  have  been  suggested  by  nature  herself;  for, 
on  the  marshy  banks  of  the  lakes  of  Xochimilco 
and  Chalcho,  the  agitated  waters,  in  the  time  of 
the  great  floods,  carry  away  pieces  of  earth,  cov- 
ered with  herbs,  and  bound  together  with  roots. 
The  first  Chinampas  were  mostly  fragments  of 
ground  artificially  joined  together  and  cultvated. 
Following  up  this  suggestion,  it  would  not  be 
difficult,  by  means  of  wicker-work,  formed  with 
marine  plants,  and  a  substratum,  or  ground-work 
of  bushes,  combined  with  tenacious  earth  or  clay, 
to  construct  similar  gardens,  of  adequate  dimen- 
sions. Upon  these  was  placed  fine  black  mould, 
sufficiently  deep  for  the  sustenance  of  the  plants 
which  it  was  desired  to  raise.  The  form  usually 
given  to  these  Chinampas  was  quadrangular,  and 
their  size  varied  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
three  hundred  feet  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of 
from  twenty  to  seventy  feet.  At  first,  the  use  of 
them  was  confined  to  the  growth  of  maize  and 
other  objects  of  absolute  necessity  ;  but,  in  the 
progress  of  time,  and  when  the  Mexicans  had 
shaken  off  the  yoke  which  rendered  them  ne- 
cessary, the  owners  applied  themselves  to  the 
production  of  vegetable  luxuries,  and  grew  fruits, 
and  flowers,  and  odoriferous  plants,  which  were 
used  for  the  embellishment  of  their  temples,  and 
the  gratification  of  their  nobles.  At  sun-rise, 
daily,  according  to  the  Abbe  Clavigero,  innumer- 
able boats  were  seen  to  arrive  at  the  city  of 
Mexico,  loaded  with  various  kinds  of  flowers  and 


FLOATING    GARDENS.  113 

herbs,  the  produce  of  these  floating  islands.  The 
garden  is  sometimes  seen  to  contain  the  cottage 
of  the  Indian,  who  is  employed  to  guard  a  con- 
tiguous group,  and  on  each  one  there  is  common- 
ly erected  a  small  hut,  under  which  the  cultivator 
can  shelter  himself  from  storms,  or  from  the 
intense  heat  of  the  sun.  If  it  is  wished  to  put 
the  garden  in  a  different  place,  this  is  easily 
effected  by  means  of  long  poles,  or  by  rowers 
placed  in  a  boat  to  which  the  garden  is  fastened. 
In  the  driest  seasons,  the  Chinampas  are  always 
productive,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  renew  the 
powers  of  the  soil  by  means  of  mud  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  lake,  which  is  highly  fertilizing. 
One  of  the  most  agreeable  recreations  afforded 
to  the  citizens  of  Mexico  is  that  of  proceeding, 
in  the  evening,  in  small  boats,  among  these 
gardens,  the  vegetation  upon  which  is  always  in 
a  state  of  luxuriance. 

Floating  gardens  are  maintained  also  on  some 
of  the  rivers  and  canals  of  China,  where  an 
excessive  population  produces  the  same  effect  as 
that  just  mentioned  as  having  resulted  from 
oppression,  and  the  inhabitants  are  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  every  expedient  for  increasing 
the  means  of  subsistence. 

Mrs.  E.  Some  plants  are  very  extraordinary. 
One  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  of  the  East  Indies 
beyond  the  Ganges,*  and  is  denominated  aerial 
from  its  singular  properties.  In  the  latter  re- 
gion, it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  inhabitants 
to  pluck  it  up,  on  account  of  the  elegance  of  its 
leaves,  the  beauty  of  its  flower,  and  the  exquisite 

*  Epidendrum  flos  aeris. 


114  SINGULAR    PLANTS. 

odor  it  diffuses,  and  to  suspend  it  by  a  silken 
cord  from  the  ceilings  of  their  rooms ;  where, 
from  year  to  year,  it  continues  to  put  forth  new 
leaves,  new  blossoms,  and  new  fragrance,  excited 
alone  to  fresh  life  and  action  by  the  stimulus  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere.  In  the  botanical 
garden,  at  Mexico,  there  is  a  tree  of  considera- 
ble size,  called  '  the  tree  of  the  little  hands/ 
bearing  a  beautiful  red  flower,  the  centre  of 
which  is  in  the  form  of  a  hand,  with  the  fingers 
a  little  bent  inwards.  Over  these,  humming- 
birds, in  all  their  beautiful,  splendid  hues,  may 
be  seen  frequently  hovering.  But  only  three 
trees  of  the  kind  exist  in  all  Mexico.  The 
mountains  of  Toluca  produce  a  very  singular 
species  of  cactus,  which  looks  exactly  like  an 
old  man's  head,  as  it  is  covered  with  long  grey 
hair,  which  completely  conceals  the  thdrns.  The 
American  aloe,  which  was  first  brought  into 
Europe  in  1561,  and  is  now  planted  for  hedges 
in  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Calabria,  has  been  thought 
to  blossom  only  once  in  a  hundred  years ;  but  the 
time  of  its  flowering  depends  on  the  quickness  of 
its  growth ;  so  that,  in  hot  countries,  where  it 
grows  fast,  it  will  blossom  in  a  few  years  ;  but,  in 
colder  climates,  it  is  much  longer  before  the  stem 
shoots  up.  When  vigorous,  it  grows  to  the  height 
of  more  than  twenty  feet.  The  tallest  aloe  of 
which  there  is  any  account,  was  in  the  garden 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  grew  to  the  height 
of  forty  feet.  In  another,  which  flowered  in 
Cheshire,  in  1737,  the  stem  appeared  in  June, 
and  grew  five  inches  a  day  for  some  weeks ;  the 
flower-branches  were  perfected  in  twelve  weeks, 


SINGULAR   PLANTS.  115 

and  then  ceased  to  grow  for  a  month,  while  the 
buds  were  forming.  This  plant  produced  a 
thousand  and  fifty  flowers ;  but  one  that  blossom- 
ed in  Leyden,  in  1760,  produced  more  than  four 
thousand.  Dr.  Walsh  saw,  in  Brazil,  an  aloe  of 
extraordinary  size.  The  flower-stem  was  two 
and  a  half  feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and 
shot  up  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet ;  from  this 
projected  innumerable  horizontal  foot-stalks,  from 
whence  hung  myriads  of  campanulate  blossoms, 
so  that  the  form  of  this  grand  flower  was  that  of 
a  pine  tree,  for  which  it  might  have  been  mista- 
ken. '  I  saw  in  some  places/  he  says,  '  when  I 
set  out,  this  stem  beginning  to  protrude  itself 
from  the  midst  of  the  leaves,  and  on  my  return 
it  had  attained  the  magnitude  of  a  pine-tree  of 
twenty  years'  growth/ 

Mr.  E.  The  embeaporba*  stands  with  a  naked  . 
stem,  surmounted  by  bare  branches,  from  the 
extremities  of  which  immense  palmated  leaves 
depend.  In  some  species,  these  are  covered,  on 
the  under  side,  with  a  hoary  down,  which,  in  the 
heat  of  the  day,  they  turn  up  to  the  sun,  so  that 
whole  patches  of  the  surface  seem  covered  with 
rich  white  blossoms.  With  this  is  strikingly 
contrasted  the  coral-tree,  t  Spikes  of  rich  scar- 
let blossoms  stand  erect  on  the  branches,  as  large 
as  those  of  a  horse-chestnut,  and  give  to  the  sur- 
face a  glow  of  the  brightest  red.  A  curious 
peculiarity  marks  its  leaves ;  the  mimosas  and 
acacias,  which  grow  near  it,  expand  their  foliage 
to  the  utmost  in  the  sun,  and  close  them  up  when 

i 

*  Cecropia  pellata  and  palmata. 

t  Erythrina  Corolladendrum. 


116  THE    GREAT    FLOWER. 

he  is  obscured  by  the  clouds  ;  but  the  erythrina 
seems  actuated  by  an  opposite  instinct.  It  closes 
up  its  large  trefoil  leaves  in  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
as  if  protecting  its  buds  from  his  burning  rays. 

Mrs.  E.  The  most  remarkable  flower,  how- 
ever, that  has  yet  been  discovered,  is  one  found 
in  the  island  of  Sumatra,  in  the  year  1818,  by 
Dr.  Arnold,  who  thus  described  it  in  a  letter  to 
a  friend  :  — '  Here,  I  rejoice  to  tell  you,  I  happen- 
ed to  meet  with  what  I  consider  as  the  greatest 
prodigy  of  the  vegetable  world.  I  had  ventured 
some  way  from  the  party,  when  one  of  the  Malay 
servants  came  running  to  me  with  wonder  in  his 
eyes,  and  said,  '  Come  with  me  sir,  come  I  a 
flower !  very  large,  beautiful,  wonderful ! '  I  im- 
mediately went  with  the  man  about  a  hundred 
yards  in  the  jungle,  (or  wild  bushy  underwood) 
and  he  pointed  to  a  flower  growing  close  to  the 
ground,  under  the  bushes,  which  was  truly  aston- 
ishing. My  first  impulse  was  to  cut  it  up,  and 
carry  it  to  the  hut.  I  therefore  seized  the  Ma- 
lay's parang,  (a  sort  of  instrument  like  a  wood- 
man's chopping-hook),  and,  finding  that  it  sprang 
from  a  small  root  which  ran  horizontally  (about 
as  large  as  two  fingers,  or  a  little  more),  I  soon 
detached  it,  and  removed  it  to  our  hut.  To  tell 
you  the  truth,  had  I  been  alone,  and  had  there 
been  no  witnesses,  I  should,  I  think,  have  been 
fearful  of  mentioning  the  size  of  this  flower,  so 
much  does  it  exceed  every  flower  I  have  ever 
seen  or  heard  of;  but  I  had  Sir  Stamford  and 
Lady  Raffles  with  me.  The  whole  flower  was 
of  a  very  thick  substance,  the  petals  and  nectary 
being  in  but  few  places  less  than  a  quarter  of  an 


CHOICE    OF    BIRDS. 


117 


inch  thick,  and,  in  some  places,  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  ;  the  substance  of  it  was' very  succulent. 
Now  for  the  dimensions,  which  are  the  most 
astonishing  part ;  it  measures  a  full  yard  across  ; 
the  petals,  which  were  roundish,  and  five  in 
number,  being  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  it 
being  about  a  foot  from  the  insertion  of  the  one 
petal  to  the  opposite  one ;  Sir  Stamford,  Lady 
Raffles,  and  myself,  taking  immediate  measures 
to  be  accurate  in  this  respect,  by  pinning  four 
large  sheets  of  paper  together,  and  cutting  them 
to  the  precise  size  of  the  flower.  The  nectary, 
in  the  opinion  of  us  all,  would  hold  twelve  pints, 
and  the  weight  of  this  prodigy  we  calculated  to 
be  fifteen  pounds.  A  gui'de  from  the  interior  of 
the  country  said  that  such  flowers  were  rare,  but 
that  he  had  seen  several ;  and  that  the  natives 
called  them  Krubut,  or  the  '  great  flower/  You 
may  judge  how  well  they  deserve  this  name,  from 
the  dimensions  of  the  buds,  which  are  about  the 
size,  and  have  very  muchjhe  appearance,  of  or- 
dinary cabbages.' 

JE.  Why,  papa,  it  would  not  be  right  to  call  it 
any  thing  else.  It  is  quite  a  giant  —  a  Goliah ! 
and  other  plants  must  look  insignificant  by  its 
side.  And  yet  the  little  daisy,  after  all,  is  as 
nicely  formed  as  that  can  be. 

Mr.  E.  That  is  true,  my  dear :  every  thing 
that  has  come  from  the  hand  of  God  is  perfect  in 
its  kind  :  and  how  many  proofs  may  we  find  of 
his  benevolence !  '  Each  bird,'  says  St.  Pierre, 
'chooses  the  plant  best  adapted  to  its  habits  and 
constitution.  Thus,  the  goldfinch  frequents  the 
thistle,  because  he  finds  a  rampart  in  its  prickly 
10 


118  WARMTH    OF    SPRING. 

leaves,  food  in  its  seeds,  and  materials  for  his 
nest  in  its  down.  The  bird-fly  of  Florida,  for 
similar  reasons,  prefers  the  vignonia.  This  is  a 
creeping  plant,  which  finds  its  way  to  the  tops  of 
the  highest  trees,  and  frequently  covers  the  whole 
trunk.  He  builds  his  nest  in  one  of  its  leaves, 
which  he  rolls  into  the  form  of  a  coronet ;  he 
finds  his  food  in  its  red  flowers,  which  resemble 
those  of  the  fox-glove  :  he  plunges  his  little  body 
into  them,  which  appears  in  the  heart  of  the 
flower  like  an  emerald  set  in  coral :  and  he  gets 
in  sometimes  so  far,  that  he  suffers  himself  to  be 
surprised  there  and  caught/ 

E.  Oh,  mamma,  there  is  one  more  question  I 
should  like  to  ask  !  —  why  should  plants  and  trees 
be  so  beautiful  in  spring,  while,  in  winter,  all 
seems  so  inactive  and  cheerless  ? 

Mrs.  E.  It  is  one  of  the  effects  of  heat  of 
which  you  have  heard. *  It  is  supposed  that  the 
warmth  of  spring  dilates  the  vessels  of  plants, 
and  produces  a  kind  of  vacuum,  into  which  the 
sap,  which  had  previously  remained  inactive  in 
the  trunk,  rises ;  this  is  followed  by  the  ascent 
of  the  sap  contained  in  the  roots ;  and  room  is 
thus  made  for  fresh  sap,  which  the  roots,  in  their 
turn,  derive  from  the  soil.  Thus  the  plant  blos- 
soms and  bears  fruit,  and  ends  its  summer 
career  ;  but,  when  cold  weather  comes,  the  ves- 
sels contract  — the  leaves  wither  — the  office  of 
transpiration  stops — and  the  roots  cease  to  absorb 
from  the  soil.  If  the  plant  be  an  annual,  its 
life  then  terminates  ;  if  not,  it  remains  torpid,  or 
a  small  quantity  of  resinous  juice  slowly  rises 

*  See  'Art  in  Nature  —  Chemistry.' 


CHANGES.  119 

from  the  stem  into  the  branches,  and  enlarges 
their  buds ;  and  even  in  evergreens  vegetation 
proceeds  imperfectly.  But,  for  the  present,  adieu, 
my  dear  children ! 


CHANGES. 

*  I  WAS  thinking,'  said  Mrs.  El  wood,  as  she 
turned  from  the  open  window,  through  which  she 
had  been  intently  looking,  '  how  agreeable  and 
delightful  is  the  verdant  mantle  of  Nature.  Had 
it  been  of  a  more  brilliant  hue,  it  would  have 
overpowered  our  sight ;  and,  instead  of  feeling 
gratified  and  refreshed,  the  effect  upon  us  would 
have  been  dazzling  and  painful.  If  the  cover- 
ing of  the  earth  were  dark  and  sombre,  what  is 
now  so  cheering  would  produce  dejection  and 
despondency:  —  but  we  are  favored  with  that 
peculiar  tint,  which  is  the  best  of  all  that  can 
possibly  be  imagined  ;  we  enjoy  — 

"  United  light  and  shade  !  where  the  sight  dwells 
With  growing  strength  and  ever  new  delight ! " 

I  was  just  remarking,  too,  that  the  first  hues  of 
spring  are  gone  with  the  snow-drops,  violets,  and 
primroses,  which  were  their  beauteous  and  short- 
lived companions.  Even  now  we  may  say,  as  the 
poet  did  of  autumn, 

"It  is  the  season  when  the  green  delight 

Of  leafy  luxury  begins  to  fade, 

And  leaves  arc  changing  hourly  on  the  sight;" 


120  CHANGES    OF    FOLIAGE. 

For  the  light  tints  of  young  foliage  are  being 
displaced  by  those  of  a  duller  green,  and  in 
succession  the  hedges  and  trees  participate  the 
change.  But  a  still  more  remarkable  process  is 
in  operation,  resembling,  in  some  respects,  that 
which  transpires  in  animal  existence,  where  the 
form  is  totally  altered ;  the  metamorphosis  being" 
not  less  wonderful  than  that  experienced  by  a 
chrysalis  when  it  becomes  a  gorgeous  butterfly. 

E.  Why,  mamma,  I  never  thought  that  there 
was  anything  of  the  kind  among  plants,  and  I 
cannot  now  imagine  to  what  you  refer. 

Mrs.  E.  Look,  love.  Here  is  a  pea,  and  you 
may  observe  that  the  pod  consists  of  a  leaf  doub- 
led over  the  seeds,  with  its  edges  united.  When 
very  young,  it  is  almost  flat ;  but  as  it  grows  it 
becomes  rounded  on  each  side,  and  loses  the 
form  and  appearance  of  a  leaf.  This  alteration 
is  necessary,  to  make  room  for  the  peas,  which, 
as  they  increase  in  size,  of  course  require  more 
space. 

E.  I  see,  mamma ;  but  is  it  not  strange  that 
a  leaf  should  be  changed  into  a  pea-pod  ? 

Mrs.  E.  It  is,  my  love ;  but  it  is  stranger  still 
that  it  should  be  changed  into  an  apple  or  a 
nectarine. 

E.  Oh,  mamma !  that  must  be  a  joke  of  yours. 
And  yet  I  think  you  mean  what  you  say,  for  you 
look  quite  serious,  and  you  don't  even  smile. 

Mrs.  E.  No,  my  dear  little  girl,  I  am  stating 
what  is  actually  true.  Examine  a  leaf,  and  you 
will  observe  that  the  upper  surface  is  smooth, 
and  the  under  one  of  a  rougher  texture,  and 
generally  it  is  downy  or  hairy.  Between  these 


TRANSFORMATION    OF    A    LEAF.  1*21 

•surfaces  lies  a  softer  body,  and  in  the  pea  the 
leaf  is  doubled  upon  its  upper  surface,  so  that 
the  under  one  is  made  external.  A  leaf  may  be 
folded  in  more  ways  than  one  ;  but  yet,  whatever 
be  the  form  of  the  fruit,  it  always  results  from 
the  way  in  which  the  leaf  was  folded  when  it 
first  budded.  Sometimes,  for  instance,  it  forms 
a  peach,  and  the  hairy  covering  of  its  under 
surface  becomes  the  soft  and  downy  skin  of  that 
delicious  fruit ;  the  cellular  texture  of  the  pabu- 
lum, or  soft  substance  between  the  two  surfaces, 
absorbing  a  great  quantity  of  sap,  and  swelling 
out  as  it  grows,  forms  the  fleshy  substance  ;  and 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  deprived  of  moist- 
ure by  the  thirstiness  of  this  soft  substance,  is 
changed  at  length  into  a  hollow  stone,  which 
defends  securely  the  kernel  or  seed.  The  fruit, 
moreover,  shows  that  it  was  formed  of  two  valves, 
like  a  pea,  for  it  may  be  divided ;  and,  when 
diseased,  it  separates  of  itself. 

JFI  That  is  exceedingly  curious.  Will  you, 
mamma  or  papa,  tell  us  more  of  this  fruit  which 
is  so  beautiful  and  delightful  ? 

Mr.  E.  I  will  cheerfully  do  so.  The  Romans 
are  said  to  have  imported  the  peach  from  Persia  ; 
but  whether  it  is  a  native  of  that  country  cannot 
be  fully  determined.  In  warmer  parts  of  Asia  it 
is  very  generally  cultivated,  and  in  many  it 
requires  no  aid.  America  has  it  also,  and  in 
Europe  it  has  long  been  highly  prized.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris  this  fruit  is  of  excellent 
quality.  The  principal  gardens  for  the  supply  of 
that  city  are  at  Montreal ;  and  one  tree  sometimes 
covers  sixty  feet  of  wall  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other.  10* 


122  ORIGIN   OP   THE    PEACH. 

P.  Papa,  how  are  peach-trees  raised  ? 

Mr.  E.  Those  last  referred  to  are  always 
raised  from  the  stone ;  and  the  facility  of  doing 
this  has  tended  to  the  general  diffusion  of  this 
fruit.  '  From  China  to  Peru/  man  has  raised  it, 
and  others  like  it,  very  soon  after  he  has  begun 
to  enjoy  the  advantages  of  civilization.  Securi- 
ty, however,  is  necessary  to  their  culture.  West- 
ern Syria  is  more  fertile,  because  it  is  less 
disturbed,  than  any  other  part  of  that  country, 
and  to  this  '  the  hills  of  Lebanon  owe  those  fine 
terraces,  in  long  succession,  which  preserve  the 
fertile  earth ;  those  well-planted  vineyards ;  those 
fields  of  wheat,  raised  by  the  industrious  hand 
of  the  husbandman  ;  those  plantations  of  cotton, 
of  olives,  and  of  mulberries,  which  present  them- 
selves every  where  in  the  midst  of  the  rocky 
steeps,  and  give  a  pleasing  example  of  the  effects 
of  human  activity/  A  great  service  was  rendered 
to  a  tribe  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  when 
Burchell,  the  traveller,  gave  their  chief  a  bag  of 
fresh  peach-stones,  and  told  him  that  they  would 
produce  trees  which  would  continue  every  year 
to  yield,  without  further  trouble,  abundance  of 
large  fruit  of  a  more  agreeable  flavor  than  any 
which  grew  in  their  country.  Columella  says, 
however,  that  the  Persians  sent  the  peach  to 
Egypt  to  poison  the  Inhabitants ;  and  a  species 
of  apricot  is  called  by  the  people  of  Barbary, 
'Matza  Franca,'  or  the  killer  of  Christians.  But 
culture  is  to  fruits  as  it  should  be  to  children, 
making  what,  are  bad  good,  and  the  good  better. 

E.  Ah,  papa!  I  know  what  you  mean.  And 
I  was  just  thinking,  how  I  like  apricots  and 
nectarines. 


VALUABLE    PRESENT  —  THE    APRICOT.         123 

Mr.  E.  They  are  both  fine  fruit,  my  dear. 
The  nectarine,  indeed,  when  of  a  good  kind  and 
properly  cultivated,  is  superior  to  the  peach ;  but 
of  its  history  little  is  known.  In  Asia  the  former 
is  very  widely  diffused,  and  it  grows  on  the 
slopes  of  the  barren  mountains  westward  of 
China.  The  Persians  call  the  apricot  of  Iran 
*  the  seed  of  the  sun.5  In  Japan,  the  apricot 
attains  the  size  of  a  large  tree ;  and  it  flourishes 
in  such  abundance  upon  the  Oases  as  to  be  dried 
and  carried  to  Egypt  as  an  article  of  commerce. 
It  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  native  of  Africa. 
The  plum  is  still  more  widely  diffused.  It  came 
originally  from  Asia  and  many  parts  of  Europe, 
and  it  even  grows  wild  in  the  hedges  in  some 
parts  of  Britain,  though  possibly  it  has  found  its 
way  there  from  some  of  the  cultivated  sorts,  and 
has  degenerated.  So  early  as  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, various  kinds  appear  to  have  been  intro- 
duced to  us  from  France  and  Italy.  The  Orleans 
probably  came  to  us  when  we  possessed  the  part 
of  France  from  which  it  takes  its  name  ;  the 
green-gage  is  called  after  the  family  by  whom  it 
was  first  cultivated  here  ;  and  the  damson,  or 
damascene,  is,  as  its  name  imports,  from  Damas- 
cus. The  origin  of  the  Washington,  which  is 
said  not  to  be  surpassed,  is  curious.  The  parent 
tree  was  purchased  in  the  market  of  New  York, 
towards  the  end  of  the  last  century.  For  several 
years  it  remained  barren,  till,  during  a  violent 
thunder-storm,  the  whole  trunk  was  struck  to  the 
earth  and  destroyed.  A  number  of  vigorous 
shoots  were  afterwards  thrown  out,  all  of  which 
were  allowed  to  remain,  and  finally  produced 
fruit. 


124  THE    PLUM THE    CHERRY. 

E.  The  storm  was  kinder  to  the  plum-tree  than 
another  was  some  time  ago.  Do  n't  you  remem- 
ber, mamma,  the  tree  we  saw  on  Sherwood 
Forest,  which  had  been  struck  by  lightning? 
Oh !  there  was  not  on  it  a  leaf  or  a  twig,  and  it 
looked  quite  solitary  and  wretched,  like  old  Wat- 
kins,  the  mole-catcher,  who  now-a-days  is  the 
picture  of  misery. 

Mrs.  E.  I  recollect  it  perfectly,  love.  But  we 
must  not  forget  the  cherry,  which  it  Jis  supposed 
we  have  had  in  England  ever  since  the  days  of 
Henry  VIII.  Before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  cherries  were  hawked  about  in  London 
just  as  they  are  still ;  and  the  commencement  of 
the  season  was  announced  by  some  one  carrying 
a  bough  or  twig  laden  with  the  fruit.  At  some 
of  the  ruined  Abbeys  and  baronial  castles,  cherry 
trees  are  found,  but  chiefly  black  ones,  which 
have  reached  the  height  of  sixty  or  eighty  feet, 
and  continue  to  produce  great  quantities  of  fruit. 
But  here  is  that  elegant  little  volume,  '  The 
Amulet.'  '  I  will  read  you  an  extract  from  Dr. 
Walsh's  Visit  to  Nicaea.  He  was  at  this  time  in 
the  neighborhood  of  a  Turkish  town,  called 
Serbandgee.  '  We  found  ourselves  in  an  eleva- 
ted valley,  embosomed  in  higher  hills,  with  a 
magnificent  lake  below  us.  The  hills  were 
clothed  with  trees  of  an  infinite  variety  of  fol- 
iage%covered  with  fruit —  chestnut,  walnut,  plum, 
cherry,  fig,  apple,  quinces,  pears,  and  medlars  — 
in  such  incredible  profusion,  as  to  be  sufficient 
to  supply  the  whole  population  of  England  ;  yet 
here  there  was  no  one  to  gather  them.  You  may 
think  it  an  exaggeration  *o  say  that  these  fruit 


THE    OLIVE.  125 

trees  formed  large  forest-wood ;  but  the  luxuri- 
ance of  vegetation  in  this  country  is  such,  that 
dwarf  plants  with  us  grow  here  to  the  size  of 
giants.  About  mid-day,  we  stopped  at  a  derven, 
or  pass  in  the  forest,  where  there  is  generally  a 
small  Turkish  guard  ;  attached  to  this  was,  as 
usual,  a  coffee-house,  where  we  lighted  our 
chiboques,  and  had  some  coffee.  The  coffee- 
house was  under  the  shade  of  a  large  tree,  cov- 
ered with  yellow  fruit,  the  nature  of  which,  as  I 
had  not  seen  anything  like  it  before,  I  was  curi- 
ous to  ascertain.  Against  the  stem,  I  found  a 
hanging  ladder,  which  I  climbed  up;  and  after 
ascending  forty  steps,  each  one  foot  perpendicu- 
lar, I  found  I  had  not  got  so  high  as  the  middle 
of  the  tree.  The  tree  was  a  cherry-tree,  pro- 
ducing an  immense  profusion  of  fruit,  of  a 
beautiful  transparent  amber  color,  and  of  the 
richest  flavor.  I  brought  down  my  hat  full,  and 
they  sent  us  a  basket  full,  for  which  we  paid  the 
value  of  about  a  penny  to  the  man,  for  the 
trouble  of  gathering.  I  took  away  with  me  some 
of  the  stones,  to  try  to  propagate  the  kind  at 
Constantinople,  where  it  is  unknown,  as  well  on 
account  of  the  delicious  flavor  of  the  fruit,  as 
the  beauty  and  magnificence  of  the  tree,  which 
could  not  be  less  than  one  hundred  feet  high.' 

jP.  Papa,  is  not  the  olive  something  like  the 
cherry  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is.  On  the  origin  of  it,  the  Greeks 
had  a  fable,  which  was  not  only  pleasing  but  in- 
structive. They  said  that  Neptune,  having  a 
dispute  with  Minerva  as  to  the  name  of  the  city 
of  Athens,  it  was  decided  that  whichever  gave 


126  THE    OLIVE. 

the  best  present  to  mankind  should  have  the  priv- 
ilege of  conferring  one.  Neptune  struck  the 
shore,  out  of  which  sprang  a  horse ;  but  Minerva 
produced  an  olive-tree ;  and  therefore  it  was  giv- 
en to  her,  because  peace,  of  which  the  olive  is 
the  symbol,  is  infinitely  better  than  war,  of  which 
the  horse  was  considered  a  type.  The  olive- 
branch  of  Noah  you  cannot  forget.  Some  have 
supposed  that  the  tops  of  the  olive-trees  might 
alone  be  visible  from  the  place  where  the  ark  was 
then  floating,  though  it  is  only  a  tree  of  moder- 
ate height ;  but  if  the  dove  saw  a  great  number 
of  other  trees  appear  above  the  water,  it  was  nat- 
ural for  it  to  repair  to  the  olive-tree  in  preference 
to  others,  because  there  it  had  been  accustomed 
to  find  shelter  and  food.  With  peculiar  proprie- 
ty the  olive-leaf,  or  branch,  was  chosen  by  God 
as  a  sign  to  the  patriarch  of  the  abatement  of  the 
deluge,  and  from  this,  perhaps,  it  became  the 
emblem  of  peace  to  various  and  distant  nations. 
Captain  Cook  found  that  green  branches  carried 
in  the  hand,  or  stuck  in  the  ground,  were  thus 
regarded  by  all  the  islanders,  even  in  the  South 
Sea.  True  piety  has,  also,  been  beautifully  ex- 
hibited under  this  figure  :  — 

c  Oh  !  who  could  bear  life's  stormy  doom, 

Did  not  thy  wing  of  love 
Come  brightly  wafting,  through  the  gloom, 

Our  peace-branch  from  above  I 

Then  sorrow,  touched  by  thee,  grows  bright, 

With  more  than  rapture's  ray, 
As  darkness  shows  us  worlds  of  light 

We  never  saw  by  day.' 

Mrs.  E.  I  remember  some  travellers  state  that 
olive-trees  are  not  always  green,  and  that  though 


WANT    OF    VERDURE.  127 

the  fields,  and  indeed  the  whole  face  of  Tuscany, 
are  almost  covered  with  them,  they  were  greatly 
disappointed  by  the  duskiness  of  their  hue.  Per- 
haps papa  can  suggest  how  it  is  that,  notwith- 
standing this,  we  read  so  often  in  the  Scriptures 
of  the  green  olive-tree. 

Mr.  E.  The  word,  my  dear,  so  translated 
may  be  considered  not  only  as  descriptive  of  col- 
or, but  of  strength  and  prosperity.  Thus  Neb- 
uchadnezzar says,  '  I  was  at  rest  in  my  house, 
and  green  in  my  palace ;'  but  here  the  word  is 
very  properly  rendered  flourishing,  and  this  inti- 
mates that  his  empire  was  like  a  plant  when  it 
is  green.  Other  instances  of  the  same  kind 
might  easily  be  given.  The  leaves  of  the  olive 
bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  willow, 
only  they  are  more  soft  and  delicate.  The  flow- 
ers are  as  delicate  as  the  leaves,  and  come  forth 
in  June.  At  first  they  are  of  a  pale  yellow  ;  but 
when  each  flower,  the  corolla  of  which  is  not  di- 
vided, widens  upwards  and  separates  into  four 
parts,  the  insides  of  them  are  white,  and  only  the 
centre  of  the  flower  yellow.  The  fruit  is  first 
green,  then  pale,  and,  when  it  is  quite  ripe,  black. 
Maillet  says  that  the  olive-tree  thrives  greatly 
in  Egypt,  and  very  commonly  produces  fruit 
as  large  as  walnuts.  Hasselquist  states  that  he 
ate  olives  at  Joppa  which  were  said  to  have  grown 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  near  Jerusalem,  and  that 
they  were  the  best  he  had  tasted  in  the  Levant. 
He  saw  olive-trees  in  Galilee  also,  but  none  fur- 
ther than  the  mountain  on  which  our  Lord's  ser- 
mon is  supposed  to  have  been  delivered.  They 
are  found,  however,  in  various  parts  of  the  earth. 


128  OLIVE -OIL. 

E.  Papa,  how  is  olive-oil  obtained'? 

Mr.  E.  The  proper  time  for  gathering  olives 
is  just  before  they  are  ripe ;  for,  if  delayed  too 
long,  the  next  crop  is  prevented,  and  the  tree  is 
productive  only  every  alternate  year.  At  Aix, 
in  France,  where  the  olive-harvest  takes  place 
early  in  November,  it  is  annual ;  in  Spain  and 
Italy,  where  it  is  delayed  till  December  or  Jan- 
uary, it  takes  place  every  second  year.  The 
quality  of  the  oil  also  depends  on  gathering  the 
fruit  in  the  first  stage  of  its  maturity.  Some- 
times, as  in  the  scriptures,  we  read  of  the  trees 
being  beaten,  and  at  others  of  their  being  shak- 
en :  the  former  denotes  the  common  practice  of 
gathering  by  the  owners  of  the  olive-yards,  the 
latter  the  method  of  the  poor  and  the  stranger, who 
might  thus  gjean  those  that  were  left.  But  the 
best  plan,  it  appears,  is  to  pluck  the  fruit  with  the 
hand,  and  to  complete  the  whole  harvest,  if  pos- 
sible, in  a  day.  That  the  mucilage  may  be  con- 
cocted, and  the  water  allowed  to  evaporate,  it  is 
spread  out,  for  two  or  three  days,  in  beds  three 
inches  deep.  The  fruit  is  reduced  to  a  pulp,  put 
into  sacks  of  coarse  linen,  or  feather-grass,  and 
subjected  to  pressure.  The  oil  first  expressed  is 
the  purest.  In  1827,  its  importation  into  Great 
Britain  amounted  to  about  four  thousand  five 
hundred  tuns.  The  Tuscans,  however,  were  the 
first  that  exported  it,  and  thus  it  obtained  the 
name  of  Florence  oil.  The  province  of  Suse,  in 
Morocco,  produces  great  abundance  of  what  is 
said  to  equal  in  quality  the  best  of  this  kind  ;  and 
of  the  origin  of  a  large  plantation  of  olive-trees 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Messa,  Mr.  Jackson 


OLIVE-PLANTATION.  129 

gives  the  Following  singular  account.  '  I  learnt 
from  the  viceroy's  aid-de-camp,  who  attended 
me,  that  one  of  the  kings  of  the  dynasty  ofSad- 
dia,  being  on  his  journey  to  Soudan,  encamped 
here  with  his  army ;  that  the  pegs  with  which 
the  cavalry  picketed  their  horses  were  cut  from 
the  olive-trees  in  the  neighborhood  ;  and  that 
these  pegs  being  left  in  the  ground,  on  account 
of  some  sudden  cause  of  the  departure  of  the  ar- 
my, the  olive-trees  in  question  sprung  up  from 
them.  I  confess,  while  I  acknowledged  the  in- 
genuity of  the  idea  (for  the  disposition  of  the  trees 
exactly  resembled  the  arrangement  of  cavalry  in 
an  encampment),  1  treated  it  as  fabulous  :  some- 
time afterwards,  however,  the  following  circum- 
stance occurred,  which  induced  me  to  think 
the  story  was  not  only  plausible,  but  very  credi- 
ble. Having  occasion  to  send  for  some  plants 
for  a  garden  which  I  had  at  Agadeer,  or  Santa 
Cruz,  the  foulah  (gardener)  brought,  amongst 
other  things,  a  few  bits  of  wood,  without  any 
roots  or  leaf,  about  eighteen  inches  long  and 
three  in  circumference,  which  he,  with  a  large 
stone,  knocked  into  the  ground.  Seeing  the  fel- 
low thus  employed,  I  asked  him  what  he  meant 
by  trifling  in  that  way.  '  I  am  not  trifling,'  said 
he,  '  but  planting  your  promegranate-trees.'  1 
began  to  take  them  out  of  the  ground ;  but  some 
persons  who  were  near,  assuring  me  that  it  was 
the  mode  in  which  they  were  always  planted,  and 
that  they  would  (with  the  blessing  of  God)  take 
root  and  shoot  forth  leaves  the  next  year,  I  was  at 
length  prevailed  on  to  leave  a  few  in  the  ground, 
merely  for  experiment ;  and  they  certainly  did 
11 


130  TEE    ALMOND. 

take  root,  and  were  in  a  fair  way  of  becoming 
good  trees  when  I  left  Santa  Cruz.' 

Mrs.  E.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  stone- 
fruits  are  formed  in  the  same  manner ;  and  that 
the  rough-coated  almond  belongs  to  the  same 
class  in  nature,  and  originates  in  the  same  way, 
as  the  soft  and  delicate  peach. 

E.  I  should  never  have  thought  that,  mamma. 
A  nice,  sleek,  pretty-looking  cat  like  ours,  must 
be  of  quite  a  different  kind  to  the  hedge-hog  that 
little  Tom  Hudson  found  the  other  day  in  the 
shrubbery. 

Mrs.  E.  Very  true,  my  dear ;  but  the  fact  is 
as  I  have  stated  it.  The  soft  intermediate  part 
of  the  leaf  is  changed  into  coarse  thready  fibres, 
which  form  the  external  covering  of  the  nut :  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  which  in  other  cases 
forms  a  thin  delicate  skin  becomes  a  hard  woody 
nut ;  and  the  other  surface  the  smooth  skin  with 
which  it  is  covered.  Some,  indeed,  think  that  the 
difference  between  the  peach  and  the  almond  is 
very  inconsiderable ;  and  a  curious  fact  is  mention- 
ed by  the  president  of  the  Horticultural  Society. 
The  fruit  of  a  sweet  almond  tree,  which  had  been 
obtained  from  an  almond-kernel,  that  had,  when 
in  flower,  peach  pollen  applied,  was  sown, and  pro- 
duced a  tree  :  this  tree  bore  eight  peaches,  some 
of  which  were  perfect,  and  the  others  burst  at  the 
centre  when  ripe,  like  almonds.  The  peaches 
were  of  a  fine  form  and  color ;  the  flesh  white, 
soft,  melting,  and  of  good  flavor.  This,  if  it 
does  not  show  that  an  almond  can  always,  be 
changed  into  a  peach,  proves  that  it  can  be  done 
by  the  pollen.  The  almond  is,  probably,  a  na- 
tiye  of  the  western  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  mention- 


THE  ALMOND THE  COCOA-NUT  TREE.      131 

ed  as  among  the  best  fruits  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan. It  is  now  abundantly  cultivated  for  its 
fruit  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France  ; 
but  in  England  chiefly  for  the  beauty  of  its  early 
flowers,  which,  appearing  on  the  bare  branches, 
led  one  of  our  poets  to  say, — 

4  The  hope,  in  dreams,  of  a  happier  hour, 

That  nlights  on  misery's  brow, 
Springs  out  of  the  silvery  almond-flower 

That  blooms  on  a  leafless  bough.' 

Now,  Emma,  though  you  have  seemed  quite  as- 
tonished at  the  change  of  the  almonds  into  peach- 
es, you  will  not  be  surprised  to  hear  that  cocoa- 
nuts  are  included  in  the  same  class. 

E.  No,  indeed,  mammal  But  as  long  as  you 
and  papa  tell  us  —  and  oh,  it  is  so  kind  of  you ! 
what  is  extraordinary,  I  shall  never  give  up  won- 
dering. And  I  should  like  dearly  to  hear  about 
the  cocoa-nuts. 

Mr.  E.  The  cocoa-nut  tree*  grows  to  the 
height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet.  The  stem  ta- 
pers from  the  bottom  gradually  to  the  top,  with- 
out branch  or  off-set ;  but  at  the  summit  it  shoots 
forth  from  twenty  to  thirty  vast  leaves,  some  of 
which  are  six  or  seven  yards  in  length.  These 
hang  in  a  graceful  tuft  all  round  the  crown  of 
the  trunk.  When  young  and  small,  the  leaves 
are  entire  ;  but  as  they  lengthen  they  divide  into 
narrow  slips,  each  of  which  has  a  wiry  rib  run- 
ning up  the  middle,  and  diverging  from  the  spinal 
stalk  of  the  leaf — as  it  may  be  called.  Though 
strong  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  tree,  the 
weight  of  this  enormous  foliage  would  soon  break 

*  Gocos  nucifera. 


132  THE  COCOA-NUT  TREE. 

it  off;  but,  where  it  branches  out,  a  cloth-like  sub- 
stance, called  Aa,  whose  fibres  run  at  right  an- 
gles with  each  other,  is  formed,  and  invests  the 
tree  with  its  strong  and  needful  intertexture, 
running  also  about  twenty- four  inches  up  the  leaf, 
and  affording  it  complete  support.  From  among 
the  junctures  of  these  leaves  with  the  head  of  the 
stalk  spring  branches  of  tendrils,  on  which  grows 
the  fruit,  —  a  nut  enveloped  with  a  husk  about 
two  and  a  half  inches  thick,  green  on  the  out- 
side, and  composed  of  close  tough  fibres,  which 
run  lengthways  from  end  to  end,  presenting  an 
oval  shape,  rather  angular  at  the  sides. 

F.  The  shell,  too,  papa,  I  remember,  is  hard 
and  black,  the  kernel  lining  the  shell  is  white, 
and  it  contains  some  milky  water. 

Mr.  E.  It  does ;  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
fruit  is  obtained  is  remarkable.  Some  travellers 
say  :  Being  thirsty,  we  requested  some  cocoa-nut 
water,  whereupon  two  or  three  of  the  natives  ran 
to  the  nearest  trees,  which  they  climbed  with  sur- 
prising facility,  by  clasping  the  stems  with  their 
arms  and  pressing  their  naked  feet  against  the 
bark ;  and  thus  these  tall  and  branchless  stems 
were  apparently  ascended  with  almost  as  much 
ease  as  they  walked  on  level  ground.  Presently 
several  fine  nuts  were  brought  to  us,  the  husks 
of  which  the  men  tore  off  with  their  teeth  ;  then, 
having  punctured  one  end  of  the  shell,  we  were 
each  presented  with  a  draught  of  this  most  deli- 
cious beverage  for  appeasing  thirst  in  a  tropical 
climate.' 

Some  trees  will  produce,  at  the  same  time,  a 
hundred,  each  containing  from  half  a  pint  to  a 


THE    COCOA-NUT  TREE.  133 

winp-quart  r,f  the  liquor  ;  and  these  noble  fruits 
closely  encircle  the  top  of  a  stem,  like  a  beaded 
belt,  or  coronet,  beneath  the  pendent  crest  of 
plume-like  leaves. 

F.  Papa,  how  does  the  lower  part  of  the  tree 
look? 

Mr.E.  The  trunk  is  a  bundle  of  fibres,  closely 
connected  by  a  cementing  matter.  Within  two 
or  three  feet  of  the  ground,  these  fibres  spread 
forth  into  thousands  of  small  roots,  which  insin- 
uate themselves  through  the  earth,  and  spread 
horizontally  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  from  the  bole, 
in  all  directions.  This  cordage  must  be  amaz- 
ingly strong,  for  it  supports  the  whole  tree,  with 
its  bulk  of  stem,  foliage,  and  fruit.  The  bark 
seems  to  be  of  little  use  in  this  species,  as  it  gen- 
-erally  rots  off  towards  the  ground  at  an  early 
stage.  Cocoa-nut  stalks  have  been  seen  decay- 
ed through  the  heart,  and  others  of  which  large 
portions  of  the  outside  had  been  cut  away  to  a 
considerable  depth,  which  yet  continued  to  thrive 
and  bear  leaves  and  nuts.  The  timber,  if  these 
live  faggots  of  well-packed  fibres  can  be  called 
timber,  is  of  some  value,  being  used  for  rafters 
in  sheds,  and  cut  into  short  lengths  for  fences  ; 
spears  were  formerly  made  of  it.  The  leaves  are 
turned  to  better  account,  being  platted  into  mats, 
shaped  into  baskets,  and  occasionally  manufac- 
tured into  bonnets.  The  fibres  of  the  husks  are 
twisted  into  ropes  and  lines  of  various  sizes, 
which  are  exceedingly  strong.  The  shell  of  the 
nut  is  converted  into  drinking-cups,  lamps, 
and  other  small  vessels.  The  kernel,  when 
scraped  out  of  the  shell,  is  either  eaten  raw,  or, 
11* 


134  THE    COCOA-NUT    TREE. 

being  squeezed  through  the  fibres  of  the  husk, 
yields  the  milk,  which  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
arrow-root,  and  a  kind  of  pudding  is  compound- 
ed of  both.  The  kernel  also  produces  a  valua- 
ble oil :  to  obtain  this,  it  is  first  scraped  into  thin 
flakes,  being  ingeniously  scooped  out  of  the  shell 
by  means  of  a  semicircular  piece  of  flat  iron, 
sharpened,  and  fixed  upon  the  angular  point  of  a 
sloping  stool,  on  which  the  person  sits,  and  turns 
the  nut,  open  at  one  end,  over  this  edge  till  the 
contents  are  cleared  out.  The  sliced  kernels 
are  then  put  into  a  trough,  or  old  canoe,,  where, 
in  a  few  days,  the  oil  drains  from  them,  is  care- 
fully collected,  put  into  bamboos,  and  corked  up 
for  use.  This  oil  is  called  by  the  South  Sea  is- 
landers won,  and  has  entirely  superseded  the 
candle-nut  for  lighting.  After  the  better  portion 
has  thus  been  drained  off,  the  residue  is  extract- 
ed by  means  of  a  press. 

E.  How  are  these  trees  planted,  papa  1 
Mr.  E.  When  the  nuts  are  intended  to  pro- 
duce others,  they  are  hung,  being  quite  ripe,  on  a 
tree.  In  about  six  months,  a  green  leaf  shoots 
out  of  one  of  the  three  holes  at  the  smaller  end. 
The  nut  is  then  put  into  the  ground,  to  the  depth 
of  the  shell,  with  the  sprout  upwards,  when,  from 
the  other  two  holes,  a  pair  of  roots  strike  down- 
ward, and  the  plant  is  nourished  by  the  decay  of 
the  nut  till  it  can  draw  its  entire  sustenance  from 
the  soil ;  and  such  is  its  freedom  of  growth  that 
there  is  scarcely  a  spot,  however  otherwise  barren 
and  unpropitious  to  vegetation,  from  which  this 
stately  plant  will  not  spring  up,  with  its  diadem 
of  beauty,  and  girdle  of  fertility.  In  about  six 
years  it  begins  to  bear  ;  the  fruit  is  nearly  twelve 


THE  DESSERT.  135 

months  in  coming  to  perfection.  From  the  juice 
of  the  cocoa-nut  the  finest  arrack  of  the  East  In- 
dies is  made. 

Mrs.  E.  Now,  Emma,  I  imagine  your  are  quite 
satisfied  that  the  metamorphoses  of  the  vegeta- 
ble world  are  not  less  amazing  than  those  of  the 


JE.  duite,  mamma.  I  knew  a  leaf  was  a  ve- 
ry wonderful  little  thing  ;  but  I  never  should 
have  thought  of  its  being  changed  into  a  peach, 
an  olive^  or  a  cocoa-nut  1 


THE  DESSERT. 

fe  What  a  fine  collection  of  early,  yet  full-ripe 
fruit,  we  have  to-day  f  said  Mr.  El  wood  to  his 
children :  '  I  see  you,  as  well  as  Mamma  and 
.myself,  enjoy  it  exceedingly.  Frederick  is,  I 
.think,  fairly  entitled  to  some,  as  a  reward  for  the 
attention  he  is  pay  ing  to  his  studies;  Emma,  too, 
may  join  him,  for  her  progress  is  very  satisfacto- 
ry:; and,  as  for  my  little  rosy  cheeked  Edward, 
he  tries  to  do  as  he  is  told,  and  promises  well. 

'*  "As  Nature  adapts  her  supplies  to  the  course 
of  the  seasons/'  says  St.  Pierre,  "  cherries,  plums, 
apricots.,  peaches,  afford  us,  in  the  burning  heats 
of  summer,  a  supply  of  soft  and  refreshing  fruits ; 
while  figs  and  mulberries  give  us  a  stock  of 
what  may  be  called  saccharine  and  pectoral. 
These  products  are,  in  truth,  transient,  like  the 
season  which  ripens  them ;  but  when,  like  the 


136  SEEDS,    HOW    PERFECTED. 

sun,  they  forsake  us,  they  are  succeeded  by 
others  of  almost  equal  attraction.  Pears  and 
apples  are  given  to  us  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer ;  and,  when  autumn  veils  the  sun  with 
his  mists,  the  chestnut  and  the  verdant  oak  afford 
us  their  mealy  and  substantial  fruit ;  the  olive, 
the  almond,  the  walnut,  produce  their  savory 
oils ;  while  the  vine  affords,  in  the  fermented 
juice  of  its  grape,  the  most  powerful  of  cordials. 
Lastly,  the  ash,  the  lime-tree,  the  willow,  the 
elm,  the  beech,  the  oak,  and  a  number  of  others, 
all  of  which  have  sheltered  us  against  the  sum- 
mer heat  by  their  delightful  foliage,  now  supply 
us,  in  their  branches  and  solid  trunks,  with  roofs, 
with  materials  for  the  labor  of  the  carpenter,  and 
with  fuel  against  the  inclemency  of  winter. 

'  Fruit  may,  indeed,  suggest  to  us  much  in- 
struction. This  cherry,  for  instance,  contains 
what  is  amazing.  The  eatable  part  first  serves 
the  purposes  of  perfecting  the  seed  or  kernel,  by 
means  of  vessels  passing  through  the  stone  ;  and 
which  in  that  part  of  a  peach  are  very  evident. 
When  the  kernel  is  perfected,  the  stone  becomes 
hard,  and  the  functions  of  these  vessels  cease ; 
but  the  substance  surrounding  the  stone  is  not 
thrown  away  as  useless,  for  it  now  receives  and 
retains  to  itself  the  whole  of  the  sun's  influence, 
and  thereby  becomes  a  grateful  food  for  man.  It 
ought  to  be  remarked,  moreover,  that  the  inter- 
vention of  the  stone  prevents  the  second  use  from 
interfering  with  the  first. 

'  Variety,  too,  meets  us  at  every  step,  as  we 
contemplate  the  works  of  God.  The  seed,  which 
is  thus  perfected  in  the  cherry,  reaches  maturity 


SEEDS,  HOW  PERFECTED  THE  MELON.   137* 

in  other  fruits  by  different  means.  In  nuts,  it  is 
encased  in  a  strong  shell,  and  the  shell  itself  is 
enclosed  in  a  pulp  or  husk,  by  which  the  seed 
within  is,  or  has  been,  fed  ;  in  grapes,  oranges, 
and  many  kinds  of  berries,  it  is  plunged  and 
overwhelmed  in  a  glutinous  syrup,  contained 
within  a  skin  or  bladder  ;  in  apples  and  pears  it 
is  imbedded  in  the  heart  of  a  firm,  fleshy  sub- 
stance ;  and  in  strawberries  it  is  pricked  into  the 
surface  of  a  soft  pulp.' 

Mrs.  E.  Another  instance  appears  in  the  gen- 
eral formation  of  fruits.  How  diversified  is  this  ! 
Sometimes  the  fruit  is  formed  from  a  single 
flower;  at  others  several  carpels  are  joined 
together  to  form  fruits,  having  different  cavities 
or  cells  for  seed.  Indeed,  the  number  of  the 
latter  implies  the  number  of  the  fomer  thus 
united,  though  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  The  carpels  consist  of  folded  leaves :  if 
these  reach  to  the  centre  of  the  fruit,  the  cells 
will  be  complete ;  if  they  reach  but  half  way, 
the  centre  wHl  be  hollow  and  empty  ;  and  if  they 
be  still  less  folded,  they  will  spread  out  in  grow- 
ing, and  the  fruit,  though  composed  of  several 
carpels,  will  only  have  one  cell.  Of  this  kind 
the  melon  is  an  example. 

E.  I  like  melons,  mamma,  exceedingly. 

Mrs.  E.  A  melon,  love,  is  the  richest  and  most 
highly-flavored  of  all  t'he  fleshy  fruits.  It  was 
freely  used  in  early  times,  and  has  been  long 
raised  in  our  own  country.  Here  and  in  France 
it  is  grown  as  a  luxury,  but  in  some  parts  of  the 
East  it  is  the  chief  necessary  of  life.  Niebuhr, 
the  celebrated  traveller,  says,  'Of  pumpkins  and 


138  MELONS. 

melons,  several  sorts  grow  naturally  in  the  woods, 
and  serve  for  feeding  camels ;  but  the  proper 
melons  are  planted  in  the  fields,  where  a  great 
variety  of  them  is  to  be  found,  and  in  such 
abundance  that  the  Arabians  of  all  ranks  use 
them,  for  some  part  of  the  year,  as  their  princi- 
pal article  of  food.  They  afford,  also,  a  very 
agreeable  liquor.  When  the  fruit  is  nearly 
ripe,  a  hole  is  pierced  into  the  pulp,  then  stop- 
ped with  wax,  and  the  melon  is  left  upon  the 
stalk.  Within  a  fews  days  after,  the  pulp  is,  in 
consequence  of  this  process,  converted  into  a 
delicious  liquor.'  To  this  Mr.  Southey  alludes 
when  he  says  : 

4  Whither  is  gone  the  boy  ? 
He  had  pierced  the  melon's  pulp, 
And  closed  with  wax  the  wound  ; 
And  he  had  duly  gone  at  morn, 
And  watched  its  ripening  rind ; 
And  now  all  joyfully  he  brings 
The  treasure  now  matured.' 

Of  melons  there  is  a  great  variety,  and  the 
number  is  constantly  increasing.  In  Persia 
twenty  sorts  are  known ;  the  finest  grow  in 
Khorasan.  The  fruit  there  is  so  large  that  two 
or  three  melons  are  a  full  load  for  a  man.  In 
some  fruits  the  carpels  are  not  only  united,  but 
soldered  with  the  calyx[;  so  that,  when  the  blos- 
som falls,  the  fruit  is  composed  of  them  both, 
forming  a  single  body.  Of  this  kind  are  some 
with  which  you  are  well  acquainted. 

E.  Oh,  mamma !  I  know  a  great  many  :  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  oran- 
ges, pines,  and 

Mrs.  E.  I  do  not  mean  any  of  them,  but  apples 


THE    APPLE-TREE.  139 

are  of  this  description ;  and  whenever  you  see 
an  eye  made  by  the  remnants  of  the  sepals,  or 
leaves  of  the  calyx,  at  the  top  of  fruit,  you  may 
be  sure  it  is  thus  formed  ;  as  are  all  whose  seeds 
are  pips. 

Mr.  E.  Many  of  the  better  sort  of  English 
apples  were  probably  at  first  introduced  from  the 
continent.  The  greater  part  of  the  names  they 
bare  are  French,  either  pure  or  corrupted.  The 
varieties  at  present  known  are  considerably  more 
than  a  thousand ;  and  of  late  years  they  have 
been  remarkably  increased,  by  applying  the 
pollen  of  one  sort  to  the  blossom  of  another. 
Frederick,  do  you  remember  a  remarkable  fact 
as  to  the  falling  of  an  apple  ? 

F.  Yes,  papa;  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Life 
of  Sir  Isaac  Newton ;  but  I  should  like  to  hear 
it  once  more,  and  I  think  my  sister  has  not 
read  it. 

Mr.  E.  In.  the  twenty-third  year  of  his  age, 
he  was  sitting  one  day  in  his  garden,  thinking, 
perhaps,  of  motion  and  space,  when  an  apple  fell 
from  a  tree  by  his  side.  Now,  that  bodies  have 
a  tendency  to  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the 
earth  was.  already  well  known,  as  affecting  all  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  our  planet,  and 
the  philosopher,  Galileo,  had  found  out  the  rate 
according  to  which  their  speed  is  increased  as 
they  continue  to  descend ;  but  no  one  dreamed 
of  the  gravitation,  as  it  is  called,  of  the  heavens. 
The  fall  of  the  apple,  however,  now  suggested 
the  idea  dimly  to  Newton's  mind.  For  thus  he 
reasoned:  The  same  power  which  has  drawn  this 
apple  to  the  earth,  when  detached  from  its 


140  PRINCIPLES    OF    GRAVITATION. 

branch,  would  have  drawn  it  from  a  position  a 
thousand  times  as  high ;  —  wherever  we  go,  we 
find  this  gravitation  *  even  on  the  summits  of  the 
highest  mountains  its  power  is  not  diminished  ;  — 
why  may  it  not  then  reach  to  the  moon,  retain 
that  planet  in  its  orbit,  and  keep  it  revolving  as  it 
does  round  our  earth  ?  And.  if  the  moon  be 
retained  in  her  orbit  by  a  gravitation  towards  the 
earth,  may  not  the  earth  and  other  planets  which 
revolve  round  the  sun,  be  retained  in  their  orbits 
by  a  similar  tendency  towards  that  luminary  ? 
Proceeding  with  such  considerations,  he  was  at 
length  the  illustrious  discoverer  of  the  secret 
mechanism  of  the  heavens. 

E.  How  I  should  like  to  have  seen  the  apple, 
if  it  had  been  in  the  British  Museum  !  And  then, 
papa,  the  apple  that  William  Tell  shot  from  the 
head  of  his  son,  when  it  was  thought  he  could 
not  do  it,  and  would  shoot  his  child  instead, 
might  be  placed  just  by,  like  some. of  the  fruits 
which  are  there  in  bottles. 

Mr.  E.  I  am  glad,  my  dear,  you  remember 
that  interesting  fact.  Pliny  mentions  '  apple-trees 
that  will  honor  the  first  grafters  forever  ;. '  but  he 
little  thought  of  the  fame  which  would  be  enjoy- 
ed by  the  observer  of  an  apple  falling  from  a 
tree.  We  shall  often  observe  important  discov- 
eries by  accident ;  but  that  of  Newton's  was 
dependent  on  calculations  long  continued,  by 
which  his  first  thoughts  were  varied  and  estab- 
lished. Before,  however,  we  pass  from  this  fruit, 
it  should  be  observed  that  cyder  is  produced  from 
it,  and  that  the  counties  where  it  is  made  lie 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  round  the 


CYDER — -APPLES  OF  SODOM.  141 

Bristol  Channel :  the  best  are,  Worcester  and 
Hereford  on  the  north,  and  Somerset  and  Devon 
on  the  south.  They  are  superior  in  appearance 
to  those  in  which  alone  grain  is  cultivated.  In 
the  spring,  extensive  districts  are  covered  with  a 
profusion  of  flowers ;  and  in  autumn  the  fruit  is 
beautiful.  Some  orchards  occupy  a  space  of 
forty  or  fifty  acres ;  and  the  trees  being  at  con- 
siderable distances,  the  land  is  also  kept  in 
tillage.  The  quantity  of  apples  required  to  make 
a  hogshead  of  cyder  is  from  twenty-four  to  thirty 
bushels  ;  and,  in  a  good  year,  an  acre  of  orchard 
will  produce  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  hogs- 
heads. 

F.  Mamma,  I  have  read  somewhere  of  an 
apple  which  is  very  beautiful  and  tempting  out- 
side, but  which  is  full  of  dust. 

Mrs.  E.  You  mean,  my  dear,  the  apple  of 
Sodom.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  purple  egg-plant,*  of 
which  the  fruit  is  large  and  handsome.  A  spe- 
cies of  flyf  often  attacks  and  punctures  the  rind  ; 
on  which  the  whole  fruit  gangrenes,  and  is 
changed  into  a  substance  like  ashes,  while  the 
outside  is  fair  and  attractive. 

Mr.  E.  Perry,  a  liquor  somewhat  similar  to 
cyder,  is  produced  from  pears ;  most  of  the  fine 
sorts  of  which  were  obtained  from  the  continent. 
Many  of  the  names  given  them  have  been  cor- 
rupted very  strangely ;  and  one  of  the  finest 
French  pears  bears  one  which,  in  English,  is 
called  the  Good  CJiristian  Turk,  a  description 
which  is  about  as  congruous  as  a  Good  Christian 
Jew.  The  Chinese,  who  cultivate  fruit  far  more 

"Solanum  Sodomeurn.         t  Cynips. 
12 


142  PERRY THE    ORANGE. 

perfectly  than  the  European  gardeners,  are  said 
to  have  pears  white  in  the  inside,  melting,  fra- 
grant, and  of  the  enormous  weight  of  ten  pounds 
each.  The  fruit  catalogue  of  the  Horticultural 
Society  mentions  above  six  hundred  varieties  of 
the  pear,  and  states  that  the  newly-discovered 
Flemish  kinds  are  of  much  more  importance 
than  the  greater  part  of  those  which  have  been 
cultivated  in  Great  Britain,  and,  when  brought 
into  use,  will  give  quite  a  new  feature  to  the 
dessert. 

F.  Are  oranges,  mamma,  formed  in  the  same 
way  as  apples  and  pears? 

Mrs.  E.  No,  my  dear.  The  orange  is  a  pulpy, 
not  a  fleshy  fruit  like  those  already  mentioned  ; 
and  pulp  is  a  peculiar  juicy  substance  situated 
inside  the  carpels.  Those  of  the  orange  consists 
of  the  quarters  into  which  the  fruit  may  be 
divided  when  the  rind  is  peeled  off,  and  the  seeds 
are  imbedded  in  the  pulp  contained  within  them. 

E.  Oranges  are  very  delightful.  Whence, 
mamma,  did  we  have  them  first  ? 

Mrs.  E.  It  is  said  they  were  imported  into 
England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  arid  that  their 
seeds  produced  the  orange-trees  which  were  at 
Beddington,  in  Surrey,  and  attained  the  height 
of  eighteen  feet,  while  the  stems  were  about  nine 
inches  in  diameter,  but  which  were  destroyed 
some  years  ago,  either  by  frost  or  from  being 
placed  in  an  inclosure.  Orange  and  lemon 
trees  have  been  cultivated  in  the  open  air  in 
England ;  and,  for  a  hundred  years,  they  have 
been  seen  in  a  few  gardens  in  the  south  of  Dev- 
onshire, trained  as  peach-trees  against  the  walls, 
and  sheltered  only  with  mats  of  straw  during  the 


THK    ORANGE.  143 

Winter.  The  fruit  of  these  is  stated  to  be  as 
large  and  fine  as  any  from  Portugal.  Oranges 
are  peculiarly  adapted  for  transmission  from  one 
place  to  another.  Foreign  figs,  dates,  and  grapes, 
must  be  dried  ;  the  tamarind  is  a  liquid  preserve  ; 
the  guava  must  be  made  into  a  jelly  ;  the  mango 
has  to  be  pulled  before  it  is  ripe,  and  to  be  pick- 
led; and  even  the  cocoa-nut  becomes  hard  and 
indigestible.  But  the  orange  may  be  had  fresh 
in  every  region  of  the  world,  and  almost  at  every 
season  of  the  year.  Its  aromatic  oil  and  its  rind 
preserve  it  from  the  effects  both  of  heat  and 
cold,  while  the  acridity  of  the  former  keeps  it 
from  the  attacks  of  insects.  Most  of  the  oranges 
and  lemons  intended  for  exportation  are  gathered 
while  green  ;  for  if  they  were  to  become  matur- 
ed they  would  spoil.  It  is  remarkable,  too,  that 
the  trees  from  which  the  fruit  is  gathered  when 
green,  bear  plentifully  every  year,  while  those  on 
which  it  is  suffered  to  ripen,  yield  abundant  crops 
only  on  alternate  years.  It  is  calculated  that 
272,000,000  are  annually  imported,  allowing 
about  a  dozen  annually  to  every  individual  of 
the  population. 

F.  Mamma,  the  orange-trees  I  have  seen  are 
small ;  are  they  always  so? 

Mrs.  E.  Oh,  no,  my  dear.  In  Spain  there  are 
some  old  orange-trees  forming  large  timber  ;  in  a 
convent  at  Rome,  there  is  one,  said  to  be  six 
hundred  years  old,  which  is  thirty-one  feet  high  ; 
and,  at  Nice,  there  was  a  tree,  in  1789,  generally 
bearing  five  or  six  thousand  oranges,  which  ex- 
ceed fifty  feet  in  height  and  required  two  men  to 
embrace  it.  The  size  greatly  depends  on  the 


144  THE    ORANGE. 

age  of  the  plant.  The  glory  of  the  country 
eastward  of  the  Rhone,  too,  is  the  orange, 
which,  when  full  grown,  is  about  twenty-five  feet 
high.  It  is  indeed  a  graceful  tree.  Its  trunk 
and  older  branches  are  of  a  delicate  ash  color  ; 
its  twigs  of  so  soft  a  green  that  they  almost 
appear  transparent ;  its  leaves  are  moderately 
large,  beautifully  shaped,  of  a  fine  healthy  green, 
and  shining  on  the  upper  sides,  while  the  under 
ones  are  slightly  downy  ;  its  little  bunches  of 
graceful  flowers  cast  around  a  delightful  fragrance 
—  in  the  sweet  oranges  they  are  of  a  delicate 
white,  and  the  more  acid  varieties  are  lightly 
marked  with  pink.  The  tree  is,  at  the  same  time, 
and  in  all  the  stages  of  its  bearing  :  here  appear 
the  pretty  flowers  —  there  the  fruit  is  just  set  — 
close  by,  it  is  suspended  in  all  the  beauty  of  its 
maturity.  No  wonder  that  the  imagination  was 
excited  by  so  lovely  an  object,,  and  that  fiction 
changed  the  oranges  of  the  East  into  the  golden 
apples  of  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides. 

E.  I  quite  long  to  see  them,  mamma ;  and  I 
am  sure  your  eyes  were  quite  bright  when  describ- 
ing them. 

Mr.  E.  Mamma  seemed,  indeed,  Emma^  quite 
as  much  pleased  by  the  thought  of  them  as  you 
ever  were  by  their  taste;  and  I  am  sure,  my  dear 
little  girl,  when  you  were  so  ill  they  seemed  as 
grateful  as  water  to  the  traveller  in  the  wilderness. 
Of  the  orange  genus  there  are  four  distinct  spe- 
cies ;  and  of  the  lemon  many  varieties.  There 
are  large  plantations  of  orange-trees  at  Silhet,  in 
India,  at  which  place  the  fruit  often  costs  no 
more  than  one  rupee  per  thousand. 


THE  RASPBERRY  —  THE  STRAWBERRY.        145 

E.  I  was  just  wondering,  papa,  how  raspber- 
ries are  formed. 

Mr.  E.  The  raspberry  consists,  my  dear,  of  a 
considerable  number  of  small  fleshy  carpels,  all 
of  which  result  from  a  single  flower.  The  red 
and  white  varieties  of  this  fruit  are  natives  of 
Britain.  Its  flavor  is  very  fleeting  :  to  have  it  in 
perfection  raspberries  should  be  eaten,  as  I  have 
often  seen  you  eat  them,  Emma,  from  the  bush. 

E.  But,  papa,  I  like  strawberries  a  great  deal 
better. 

Mr.  E.  They  are  certainly  superior,  Emma ; 
and  for  this  delicious  fruit,  of  which  there  are 
many  kinds,  we  are  indebted  to  Louisiana  and 
Virginia.  By  the  way,  the  arctic  berry,  which 
grows  from  a  bramble,  in  the  wildest  and  most 
exposed  parts  of  Lapland,  sometimes  offered  to 
Linnaeus  the  only  food  which  he  found  in  his 
perilous  journey  in  those  dreary  regions  ;  and  of 
it  he  thus  speaks  :  — 1 1  should  be  ungrateful  to- 
wards this  beneficent  plant,  which  often,  when  I 
was  almost  prostrate  with  hunger  and  fatigue, 
restored  me  with  the  vinous  nectar  of  its  berries, 
did  I  not  bestow  on  it  a  full  description.'  Dr. 
Clarke,  too,  appears  to  have  been  greatly  indebt- 
ed to  a  berry  which  is  widely  diffused,  called  the 
cloud-berry.  A  single  berry  grows  on  the  top  of 
a  stem,  and  its  appearance  and  effect  he  thus 
describes  : — 'Mr.  Grape's  children  came  into  the 
room,  bringing  with  them  two  or  three  gallons  of 
the  fruit  of  the  cloud-berry,  or  rubus  chamcemo- 
rus.  This  plant  grows  so  abundantly  near  the 
river  that  it  is  easy  to  gather  bushels  of  the  fruit. 
As  the  large  berry  ripens,  which  is  as  big  as  the 
12* 


146  THE    CLOUD-BERRY, 

top  of  a  man's  thumb,  its  color/'at  first  scarlet, 
becomes  yellow.  When  eaten,  with  sugar  and 
cream,  it  is  cooling  and  delicious,  and  tastes  like 
the  large  American  hautboy-strawberries.  Little 
did  the  author  dream  of  the  blessed  effects  he 
was  to  experience  by  tasting  of  the  offering 
brought  by  these  little  children,  who,  proud  of 
having  their  gifts  accepted,  would  gladly  run  and 
gather  daily  a  fresh  supply,  which  was  as  often 
blended  with  cream  and  sugar  by  the  hands  of 
their  mother  :  until,  at  last,  he  perceived  that  his 
fever  rapidly  abated;  his  spirits  and  his  appetite 
returned  ;  and,  when  sinking  under  a  disorder  so 
obstinate  that  it  seemed  to  be  incurable,  the 
blessings  of  health  were  restored  to  him,  where 
he  had  reason  to  believe  he  should  have  found 
his  grave.  The  symptoms  of  amendment  were 
almost  instantaneous  after  eating  these  berries. 

F.  Are  all  the  berries  formed  like  the  rasp- 
berry you  just  described,  papa  ? 

Mr.  E.  No,  my  dear ;  even  the  strawberry  is 
not  properly  so  called,  because  it  does  not  belong 
to  the  class  of  berries.  It  consists  of  a  fleshy 
substance,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  the  sum- 
mit of  the  pedunculus,  or  stalk,  in  which  the 
several  parts  of  the  flower  are  inserted.  The 
small  grains'  on  its  surface  are  so  many  little 
carpels,  each  of  which  contains  a  seed ;  and 
these,  though  dry,  resemble  the  small  fleshy 
spherical  bodies  which  form  the  raspberry.  The 
white  conical  substance  which  remains  in  the 
calyx  of  the  raspberry,  after  the  fruit  is  pulled 
off,  resembles  the  fleshy  substance  of  the  straw- 
berry ;  for  they  both  result  in  the  same  way. 


THE    VINE.  147 

E.  How  strange  that  is!  And  are  gooseberries 
and  currants  formed  differently? 

Mr.  E.  They  are  formed  alike,  but  different 
from  the  raspberry.  The  fruits  in  which  the 
«eeds  are  promiscuously  situated  are  classed  by 
themselves;  arid  among  these  grapes  appear. 
The  vine,  however,  deserves  particular  notice. 
It  grew  plentifully  in  Palestine,  and  was  particu- 
larly fine  in  some  of  its  districts;  one  of  "which 
has  been  thus  celebrated :  — 

*  In  yonder  vale,  where  Eshcol  flows  along, 
Behold,  a  mountain  rising  to  the  skies  ! 
Above  it  towers  the  sun — sublimely  high  ; 
While  his  bright  beams  its  lofty  top  makes  bare. 
To  its  steep  side  the  vine-,  luxuriant,  cleaves  ; 
Tender  in  shoot,  yet  large  in  leaf,  and  high. 
Its  purple  fruit,  delicious  to  the  taste, 
Producing  wine  to  cheer  the  heart  of  man, 
To  heal  the  sick,  and  to  support  the  weak — 
To  comfort  all .' 

The  bunch  of  grapes  which  was  brought  by  the 
spies  to  the  camp  of  Israel  astonished  the  people, 
and  we  are  assured  by  travellers  that,  in  the  -val- 
ley of  Eshcol,  there  were  bunches  of  -grapes  of 
ten  and  twelve  pounds  weight.  One  of  them 
<even  states,  that  he  was  informed  by  a  person 
\vho  lived  many  years  in  Palestine,  that  there 
were  bunches  of  grapes  in  the  valley  of  Hebron 
so  large  that  two  men  could  scarcely  carry  one. 
The  prediction  of  the  lot  of  Judah,  in  the  par- 
tition of  the  promised  land,  included  abundance 
of  vines,  so  hardy  that  a  colt  might  be  bound  to 
them  4  and,  in  some  parts  of  Persia,  it  *vas  for- 
merly the  custom  to  turn  the  cattle  into  the 
vineyards  after  the  vintage,  .to  browse  on  the 
vines,  some  of  which  are  so  large  that  a  man  can 
hardly  compass  the  trunks  in  his  arms.  The 


148  THE    VINE. 

same  custom,  too,  appears  to  have  prevailed  gen- 
erally in  Lesser  Asia.  Galilee  would  now  be  a 
paradise  were  it  inhabited  by  an  industrious  peo- 
ple, under  an  enlightened  government.  Vine 
stalks  are  to  be  seen  here  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  forming,  by  their  twining  branches, 
vast  arches,  and  extensive  ceilings  of  verdure. 
'A  cluster  of  grapes,  two  or  three  feet  in  length, 
will  give/  says  Schutze,  (  an  abundant  supper  to 
a  whole  family.' 

E.  I  should  think,  papa,  a  vineyard  is  very 
beautiful. 

Mr.  E.  Not  always,  my  dear  ;  the  hop-planta- 
tions of  England  are  far  more  picturesque.  In 
France,  the  vines  are  trained  on  poles,  seldom 
more  than  three  or  four  feet  high;  in  Spain, 
poles  are  not  used,  but  cuttings  are  planted, 
which,  not  being  permitted  to  grow  very  tall, 
gradually  form  thick  and  stout  stalks ;  in  Swit- 
zerland and  the  German  provinces,  the  vineyards 
are  as  uninteresting  as  those  of  France ;  but,  in 
Italy,  the  vine  surrounds  the  stone  cottage  with 
its  girdle,  flings  its  pliant  and  luxuriant  branches 
over  the  rustic  veranda,  or  twines  its  long  gar- 
land from  tree  to  tree ;  in  Greece,  the  shoots  of 
the  vine  are  either  trained  upon  trees,  or  sup- 
ported, so  as  to  display  all  their  luxuriance ;  in 
Persia,  they  cause  their  vines  to  run  up  a  wall, 
and  curl  over  on  the  top ;  and,  in  some  parts  of 
the  East,  the  stairs  leading  to  the  upper  apart- 
ments of  the  harem  are  commonly  covered  with 
vines ;  a  lattice-work  of  wood  is  often  raised 
against  the  dead  walls,  for  a  vine  or  other  shrubs 
to  crawl  upon ;  and  not  unfrequently  appears 


VINEYARDS.  149 

*  the  fruitful  bough  by  a  well ;'  for  a  vine  may  be 
seen  covering  the  trelliswork  surrounding  it,  and 
inviting  the  owner  and  his  family  to  gather  be- 
neath its  shade. 

E.  How  delightful  it  would  be,  papa,  for  us 
all  to  be  there  ?     The  grapes  would  be  so  rich, 
and  the  shade  so  agreeable !     But  I  should  not 
like  it  without  you,  mamma,  Frederick,  and  Ed- 
ward.     No,    our  sweet   little    arbor,    with   the 
clematis  just  peeping  in,  would  then  be  a  thou- 
sand times  better. 

•Mrs.  E.  I  am  glad  you  think  so,  dear.  But 
you  may  yet  see  some  remarkable  vines.  There 
is  one,  for  instance,  at  Hampton  Court,  which 
covers  a  surface  of  1694  square  feet,  and  has 
seldom  fewer  than  2000  clusters  on  it  every  sea- 
son. One  year  it  had  a  still  greater  number  ; 
«ach  weighing,  on  an  average,  a  pound.  Anoth- 
er, at  Valentines,  in  Essex,  extends  over  a  still 
greater  surface,  and  has  a  larger  trunk  ;  but  it  is 
not  generally  so  productive,  though  sometimes  it 
is  not  inferior.  These  are  called  Black  Ham- 
burgh vines.  Much,  however,  depends  on  the 
cultivation  of  trees.  'The  people  of  Nauplia/ 
Dr.  Clarke  says,  •'  were  early  renowned  for  the 
culture  of  the  vine;  they  observed  that  those 
trees  on  which  asses  browsed  were  more  abun- 
dant in  their  produce ;  this  suggested  the  art  of 
pruning  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  their  success, 
they  formerly  worshipped  an  ass's  head  as  an 
idol.' 

F.  Why,  that  was  another  accident  turned  to 
good  account,  like  Newton's  apole 


150  RAISINS. 

Mrs.  E.  It  was  so ;  but  such  cases  are  very 
numerous.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that 
raisins  are  dried  grapes,  and  that  currants  are 
those  of  a  smaller  kind.  The  mode  of  drying 
grapes  is  thus  described  in  Laborde's  account  of 
Spain:  —  'In  the  kingdom  of  Valencia  they 
make  a  kind  of  ley  with  the  ashes  of  rosemary 
and  vine  branches,  to  which  they  add  a  quart  of 
slaked  lime.  This  ley  is  heated,  and  a  vessel 
full  of  holes,  containing  the  grapes,  is  put  into 
it.  When  the  branches  are  in  the  state  desired 
they  are  generally  carried  to  naked  rocks,  where 
they  are  spread  on  beds  of  the  field  artemisia, 
and  are  turned  every  two  or  three  days  till  they 
are  dry.  In  the  kingdom  of  Grenada,  particu- 
larly towards  Malaga,  they  are  simply  dried  in 
the  sun,  without  any  other  preparation.  The 
former  have  a  more  pleasing  rind,  but  a  less 
mellow  substance ;  the  skins  of  the  latter  are 
not  so  sugary,  but  their  substance  has  a  much 
greater  relish ;  therefore,  the  raisins  of  Malaga 
are  preferred  by  foreigners,  and  are  sold  at  a 
higher  price  :  to  this  their  quality  may  likewise 
contribute ;  they  are  naturally  larger  and  more 
delicate  than  those  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia.' 
What  question  was  that,  Emma,  I  saw  you  were 
about  to  ask  ? 

E.  Mamma,  you  have  not  said  a  word  yet 
about  the  fig-tree.  Will  you  be  so  kind  —  or,  if 
you  are  tired,  perhaps  papa  will  tell  us  something 
about  it  ? 

Mr.  E.  The  fig-tree,  my  love,  is  one  of  great 
interest,  and,  from  your  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
it  is  naturally  associated  in  your  mind  with  the 


THE    FIG-TREE.  151 

vine.  In  the  fructification  of  the  fig  there  is 
something  very  singular.  It  has  no  visible  flow- 
ers ;  for  the  fruit  arises  immediately  from  the 
joints  of  the  tree,  in  the  form  of  little  buds,  with 
a  perforation  or  aperture  at  the  end,  but  not 
showing  anything  like  petals.  As  the  fig  enlarg- 
es, the  flower  comes  to  maturity  in  its  conceal- 
ment; and,  in  eastern  countries,  the  fruit  is 
improved  by  a  singular  operation.  It  is  perform- 
ed by  suspending  with  threads,  above  the  cultiva- 
ted figs,  branches  of  the  wild  fig,  which  are  full 
of  insects  called  cynips.  When  one  of  these  has 
become  winged  it  quits  its  house,  and  penetrates 
the  cultivated  figs  for  the  purpose  of  laying  its 
eggs ;  and  thus  it  ensures  the  fructification  by 
dispersing  the  pollen,  and  afterwards  hastens  the 
ripening  by  puncturing  the  pulp,  and  causing  a 
dispersion  or  circulation  of  the  nutritious  juices. 
In  France,  straws  dipped  in  olive  oil  are  inserted 
to  produce  the  same  effect.  Another  fact  is  very 
remarkable.  The  fig-tree  yields  fruit  through  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year.  The  first  ripe 
figs  are  called  boccore,  and  reach  maturity  about 
the  latter  end  of  June ;  though,  as  in  other  trees, 
a  few  ripe  ones  are  produced  before  the  full 
season.  These  few  are  probably  of  an  inferior 
value,  according  to  the  language  of  the  prophet 
Hosea :  '  I  found  Israel  like  grapes  in  the  wilder- 
ness ;  I  found  your  fathers  as  the  first  ripe  fruit 
in  the  fig-tree  at  her  first  time.1  When  the 
boccore  approaches  perfection,  the  karmouse,  or 
summer-fig,  begins  to  be  found.  This  is  the 
crop  that  is  dried.  And,  when  the  karmouse 
ripens,  in  Syria  and  Barbary,  there  appears  a 


152  THE    BANIAN-TREE. 

third  crop,  which  often  hangs  and  matures  upon 
the  tree  after  the  leaves  are  shed. 

Mrs.  E.  How  extraordinary,  too,  is  the  banian- 
tree  !  *    One  described  by  Mr.  Forbes  had  lost  a 
considerable  part  by  the  high  floods  of  a  neigh- 
boring river,  but  what  still  remained  was  near 
two  thousand  feet  in  circumference,    measured 
round    the    principal    stem ;    the    overhanging 
branches,  not  yet  struck  down,  covered  a  much 
larger  space  ;    and  under  it  grew  a  number  of 
custard-apples,  and  other  wild  plants.    The  large 
trunks  of  this  single  tree    amounted  to    three 
hundred  and  fifty ;  the  smaller  stems,    forming 
into  strong  supporters,  exceeded  three  thousand ; 
and  every  one  of  them  was  easting  out  smaller 
branches,    and  hanging  roots,   in   time  to  form 
trunks,  and  become  the  parent  of  a  future  proge- 
ny.     According  to  the  Hindoo  superstition,  the 
origin   of  the   tree  is  ascribed  to  a  saint,  who, 
ages  since,  invoked  a  blessing  from  Brahma  on 
a  small  sprig  of  banian-tree,  which  he  stuck  into- 
the  ground  on  this  spot,  and  prayed  that  it  might 
overshadow  multitudes.     It  is,   probably,  some 
thousand  years  old,  and  the  Hindoos  regard  it 
with  great  veneration.     On  sacred  festivals  they 
repair  beneath  its  shade  to  worship  their  respec- 
tive deities,  and  perform  their   ablutions  in  the 
surrounding  stream.     This  magnificent  pavilion 
was  filled  with  a  variety  of  feathered  songsters, 
peacocks,  and  other  birds ;  and   crowded    with 
whole   families  of  monkeys,  whose  antics  were 
very  diverting ;  showing  their  parental  affection 

\Ficus  Indica* 


AGGREGATE    FRUITS.  .      153 

by  teaching  the  young  ones  to  procure  their  food, 
and  exert  themselves  with  agility  in  jumping  from 
bough  to  bough,  and  then  taking  more  extensive 
leaps,  from  tree  to  tree,  encouraging  them  by 
caresses  when  timorous,  and  menacing  them 
when  refractory. 

Mr.  E.  Sometimes  fruit  is  formed  by  a  collec- 
tion of  several  fruits  produced  by  different  blos- 
soms. The  cone  of  a  pine  or  fir-tree  is  an 
example  ;  the  flowers  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  what  are  called  bractasa,  which  remain 
after  flowering ;  they  grow  tough  and  hard,  and 
enclose  each  of  the  fruits,  as  it  were,  in  a  case, 
and  thus  this  little  pyramid  is  composed  of  an 
aggregation  of  fruits,  produced  by  as  many  dif- 
ferent flowers,  having  each  a  single  seed.  An- 
other instance  is  afforded  by  the  pine-apple.  This 
is  not  a  single  fruit,  but  is  the  result  of  the  sol- 
dering together  of  a  number  of  small  fruits, 
collected  on  an  axis,  which  is  the  stalk.  These 
small  fruits,  being  soft  and  fleshy,  unite  together ; 
but  traces  of  the  different  fruits  are  seen  on  the 
surface,  each  forming  a  small  protuberance ;  the 
axis  of  the  fruit  terminates  in  a  crown  of  leaves, 
which  surmounts  the  whole.  It  is  remarkable, 
too,  that  cultivation  diminishes  the  quantity  of 
seed  :  in  the  pine-apple  it  makes  them  fail  com- 
pletely, so  that  4Jie  plant  can  only  be  propagated 
by  the  crown,  or  by  suckers.  In  the  centre  of 
the  pine-apple,  the  vacant  cells  may  be  perceived 
in  which  the  seeds  have  perished,  and  in  which 
they  are  lodged  in  the  wild  pine-apj  Je. 

Mrs.  E.  The  mulberry  should  also  be  men- 
tioned :  it  is,  in  fact,  an  aggregation  of  several 
13 


154  THE    MULHERRY. 

different  fruits,  proceeding  from  as  many^differ- 
ent  flowers,  though  it  wears  the  same  appearance 
as  the  raspberry,  which  is  the  result  of  different 
carpels  belonging  to  the  same  flower. 

Mr.  E.  A  species  of  mulberry  is  cultivated  in 
Japan  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  hence  it 
is  called  the  paper-mulberry.*  For  this  purpose 
it  is  raised  in  beds,  as  osiers  are  cultivated  with 
us  for  the  use  of  the  basket-maker  and  the 
cooper.  When  the  leaves  have  fallen  off,  that 
is,  about  the  month  of- December,  the  shoots  are 
cut  down,  divided  into  lengths  of  about  three 
feet,  bound  into  bundles,  placed  upright  and 
close  together  in  a  copper,  and  boiled  till  the 
bark  is  completely  loosened  from  the  wood. 
Should  they  be  dry  before  being  subjected  to 
boiling,  they  are  prepared  for  that  operation  by 
maceration  in  water  for  twenty-four  hours.  After 
the  rods  are  cold,  the  bark  is  divided  lengthwise 
by  a  knife,  stripped  off,  and  dried  for  use. 
When  about  to  be  used,  it  is  put  into  water  till  it 
is  so  much  soaked  that  the  external  and  colored 
part  of  the  bark  can  be  separated.  That  being 
done,  the  bark  is  sorted,  the  strongest  being  set 
apart  for  the  best  and  whitest  paper,  and  the 
weaker  for  that  of  inferior  quality  ;  while  of  the 
refuse  n.  very  coarse  brown  paper  is  made.  The 
sorted  bark  is  then  boiled  till  it  becomes  tender, 
that  is,  till  it.  easily  separates  with  the  fingers, 
and  then  it  is  washed  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  according  to  the  quality  of  paper  wanted. 
If  strong  writing-paper,  the  washing  must  be 

*  Broussonetia  papyrifera. 


THE    PAPER-MULBERRY.  155 

moderate  ;  but,  if  the  color  is  to  be  very  delicate, 
and  the  texture  soft  and  silky,  the  washing  must 
be  more  prolonged.  When  properly  washed,  it 
is  taken  to  a  table,  and  there  reduced  to  a  pulp, 
by  beating  with  wooden  mallets.  When  suffi- 
ciently reduced,  it  is  brought  to  the  requisite 
consistency  with  water;  rice-starch,  and  the 
mucilaginous  infusion  of  manihot-root,*  are  add- 
ed by  way  of  size  ;  and  then  the  sheets  of  paper 
are  formed,  one  by  one,  upon  a  table,  collected 
into  heaps,  and  pressed  by  a  weight. 

Mrs.  E.  I  now  recollect  another  circumstance. 
The  bark  of  the  paper-mulberry  furnishes  fibres 
for  ropes,  and  it  can  even  be  formed  into  a  kind 
of  cloth.  M.  la  Rouverie  affirms  that  he  pro- 
cured a  beautiful  vegetable  silk  from  the  young 
branches  of  this  tree;  cutting  the  bark  while  it 
was  in  sap,  and  then  beating  it  with  mallets,  and 
steeping  it  in  water,  he  obtained  a  thread  from 
the  fibres,  almost  equal  to  silk  ill  quality,  and  this 
was  woven  into  a  cloth,  whose  texture  appeared 
as  if  formed  of  that  material.  The  women  of 
Louisiana  obtain  a  similar  production  from  the 
offshoo'ts  of  the  mulberry  ;  these  are  gathered 
when  about  four  or  five  feet  high."  The  bark  is 
stripped  and  dried  in  the  sun  ;  it  is  then  beaten 
to  get  rid  of  the  outer  part,  which  falls  off,  leav- 
ing the  inner  bark  entire.  This  is  again  beaten 
to  make  it  still  finer,  after  which  it  is  bleached 
in  dew.  It  is  then  spun,  and  various  fabrics  are 
m;<de  of  it,  such  as  nets  and  fringes  ;  and  some- 
times it  is  woven  into  cloth.  The  finest  cloth 

*  Hibiscus  manihot, 


156          CHOICE:  FRUITS  OF 

among  the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the  South  Sea 
islands  is  made  of  the  bark  of  this  tree. 

F.  Where,  papa,  may  we  find  the  finest  fruit? 
Is  it  not  much  better  in  other  countries  than  it  is 
here  ? 

Mr.  E.  In  some  respects,  my  dear,  foreigners 
have  the  advantage  ;  in  others,  it  is  decidedly 
ours.  It  is  true  the  market  place  of  Thoulouse 
is  remarkably  splendid.  Millions  of  peaches  and 
nectarines  may  be  seen  there,  as  a  recent  traveller 
remarks,  of  a  size  that  would  strike  an  English 
gardener  with  astonishment,  some  of  which 
measure  ten  inches  in  circumference  ;  and  there 
are  millions  of  every  fruit  and  every  vegetable 
found  within  the  temperate  zone.  But  I  agree 
with  him  in  thinking  that,,  notwithstanding  the 
size  and  beauty  of  the  fruit  found  in  the  more 
southern  countries,  it  does  not  equal,,  in  flavor 
and  mellowness,  the  same  fruit  produced  in  a 
choice  garden  in  England.  The  finest  melon 
reared  in  England,  by  artificial  heat,  is  indeed 
an  indifferent  fruit  compared  with  the  melon  of 
Grenada  or  Valencia ;  and  the  choicest  hot-house 
grape,  though  ^  much  excelling  the  grapes  of 
France,  is  yet  far  inferior  to  the  muscatel  of 
Malaga  or  Alicant.  But  I  speak  of  fruits  ripen- 
ed both  in  England  and  on  the  continent  by  the 
sun^  and  I  assert  that  these  are  found  in  greater 
perfection  in  England  than  in  any  other  country. 
And  with  him  I  may  add,  '  the  enormous  peaches 
of  Languedoc  are  neither  so  mellow  nor  so  high 
flavored  as  the  best  English  peach  ;  for,  before 
the  inside  becomes  thoroughly  ripe,  the  outer 
parts  lose  their  freshness  and  flavor.  I  have  no 


TEA. 


157 


where  tasted  pears  equal  to  the  jargonel,  such  as 
I  have  eaten  hi  England  :  the  ribstone  pippin 
is  not  equalled  in  any  continental  market ;  and, 
as  for  strawberries,  I'll  back  my  own  little  gar- 
den against  the  world.' 

Mrs,  E.  I  quite  agree  with  you,  my  dear ;  and 
wish  our  children  to  imbibe  your  ardent  love  of 
our  '  father-land.'  We  will  not  deny  to  other 
countries  their  claim  to  admiration  ;  they  have 
their  advantages^- but  England —  England, 'with 
all  its  faults/  shall  be  our  home. 


A  SUMMER  EVENING. 

*  How  delightful  it  is  now,  mamma ! '  said 
Emma,  as  one  fine  summer  evening  the  tea 
equipage  was  removing  :  '  it  has  been  quite  a 
sultry  day,  but  now  it  is  so  cool  and  pleasant; 
and,  after  si&h  a  ramble  as  we  have  had,  what 
can  be  so  agreeable  as  coffee  and  tea  ?  ' 

1  You  will  be  surprised,  perhaps,  my  dear, 
when  I  tell  you/  replied  Mrs.  Elvvood,  '  that  to  a 
Turk  both  our  tea  and  coffee  would  be  quite 
unpalatable.' 

1  What  a  strange  creature  he  must  be,  then, 
marnma  ! '  said  Emma. 

'  Might  he  not  say  the  same  thing  of  you  ?  ' 
rejoined  Mrs.  Elwood.  '  Habit  produces  on  him 
and  you  its  peculiar  effect.  You  like  tea  sweet- 
ened with  sugar,  and  softened  with  milk,  but 
13* 


158  IMPORTATION  OP  TEA. 

he  never  takes  anything  of  this  kind,  but  coffee, 
without  milk  or  sugar,  which  is  as  black,  thick, 
and  bitter,  as  soot ;  and,  when  a  traveller  gave 
some  tea  in  your  way  to  a  Turk,  he  describes 
his  distress  at  the  mawkish  mixture  as  quite 
ridiculous.  He  stated,  however,  that  the  ladies 
of  the  harem  requested  to  taste  the  tea  also,  but, 
when  a  specimen  was  sent,  they  soon  burst  into 
loud  fits  of  laughing  at  the  extraordinary  stuff, 
and  it  was  said  they  liked  it  as  little  as  the  other 
sex.' 

E.  Well,   mamma,  they  shall  have  their  way, 
and  I,  if  you  please,  will  have  mine  ;  but  where 
did  we  first  obtain  tea  I 

Mrs.  E.  It  is  a  native  of  China  or  Japan,  and, 
probably,  of  both.  It  was  used  among  the  na- 
tives of  the  former  from  time  immemorial,  and 
has  been  the  constant  theme  of  their  poets,  from 
the  age  of  Confucius.  But  the  leaf  was  first 
imported  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  though  it  was  not  till  the  year  1666  that 
a  small  quantity  was  brought  over  from  Holland 
to  this  country  by  Lords  Arlington  and  Ossory. 
Now  the  quantity  we  consume  is  immense. 

F.  Can  you  tell  us,  mamma,  how  it  grows  1 
Mrs.  E.  It  is  produced  from  seeds,  which  are 

laid  in  rows  four  or  five  feet  asunder  ;  but,  so 
uncertain  is  their  vegetation,  that  it  is  necessary 
to  sow  seven  or  eight  seed  in  every  hole.  The 
ground  between  each  row  is  always  kept  free 
from  weeds,  and  the  plants  are  not  allowed  to 
grow  higher  than  to  allow  of  the  leaves  being 
conveniently  gathered.  The  first  crop  of  leaves 


GROWTH    OF    TEA.  159 

is  not  collected  until  the  third  year  after  sowing; 
and  when  the  trees  are  six  or  seven  years  old, 
the  produce  becomes  so  inferior  that  they  are  re- 
moved to  make  room  for  others.  But  papa  will 
be  so  kind  as  to  assist  my  description. 

E.  Oh,  papa,  what  color  are  the  flowers? 

Mr.  E.  They  are  white,  and  somewhat  resem- 
ble the  wild  rose,  which  grows  so  plentifully  in 
our  hedges  ;  the  flowers  are  succeeded  by  soft 
green  berries  or  pods,  each  containing  from  one 
to  three  white  seeds.  The  leaves  are  gathered 
from  one  to  four  times  during  the  year,  according 
to  the  age  of  the  tree,  but  most  commonly  there 
are  three  gatherings,  which  take  place  about 
April,  June,  and  September.  In  the  first,  the 
leaves  are  small,  tender,  and  unfolded,  but  of 
the  most  delicate  color,  and  aromatic  flavor,  and 
with  the  least  portion  of  either  fibre  or  bitter- 
ness. The  persons  employed  do  not  pull  the 
leaves  by  handfuls,  but  pick  them  one  by  one, 
and  are  careful  not  to  break  them ;  and,  though 
the  process  seems  tedious,  they  gather  from  four 
to  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  a  day.  In  the  second, 
the  leaves  are  of  a  dull  green  color,  while  those 
in  the  third  are  of  inferior  value. 

Mrs.  E.  I  have  heard  that  the  most  celebrated 
tea  in  Japan  is  that  which  grows  near  Udsi,  a 
small  village  close  to  the  sea.  Here  is  a  delightful 
mountain,  whose  climate  is  peculiarly  favorable 
to  the  plant ;  it  is  therefore  enclosed,  and  watch- 
ed most  attentively.  Its  produce  is  gathered  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  is  escorted  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  mountain,  and  a  strong  guard,  to 
the  emperor's  court,  and  reserved  for  the  use  of 


160  PREPARATION    OF    TEA. 

the  imperial  family.  As,  too,  the  tea-shrub  often 
grows  on  the  rugged  banks  of  steep  mountains  of 
dangerous  access,  the  Chinese  make  use  of  a 
singular  stratagem.  They  irritate  the  monkeys, 
which  generally  frequent  such  spots,  and  these 
creatures  tear  off  the  branches,  and  throw  them 
down  in  revenge.  The  branches  are  then  immedi- 
ately collected,  and  the  leaves  stripped  off. 

E.  Cunning  as  the  monkeys  are,  mamma,  thoy 
do  not  know  that  the  Chinese  are  more  so.  I 
wonder  though  that  they  have  not  found  out  the 
tricks.  But  I  should  like  to  know  what  is  done 
with  the  leaves  after  they  are  gathered. 

Mr.  E.  They  are  put  into  wide  shallow  bas- 
kets, and  placed  in  the  air,  wind,  or  sunshine,  for 
some  hours.  They  are  then  put  on  a  flat  cast-iron 
pan,  over  a  stove  heated  with  charcoal.  About 
halfor  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  leaves  are  thus 
heated  at  once,  stirred  about  quickly  with  a  kind 
of  brush,  and  then  hastily  swept  off  the  pan  into 
baskets.  The  next  process  is  that  of  rolling, 
which  is  done  by  men  carefully  rubbing  them  be- 
tween their  hands;  after  which  the  leaves  are 
again  put,  in  larger  quantities,  on  the  pan,  and  ex- 
posed to  heat,  but  only  enough  to  dry  them  effect- 
ually, without  danger  of  scorching.  When  this  is 
done,  the  tea  is  placed  on  a  table  and  carefully  pick- 
ed, and  every  unsightly  or  imperfectly  dried  taaf 
is  removed,  in  order  that  the  sample  may  look  as 
well  as  possible.  For  some  finer  sorts  the  heated 
plates  are  not  used,  but  the  leaves,  one  by  one, 
are  carefully  rolled  into  balls,  with  the  hands. 
It  is,  however,  an  error  to  suppose,  as  some  do, 
that  the  color  of  green  tea  is  given  to  it  by  sheets 


COFFEE.  161 

of  copper  on  which  it  is  dried,  since  this  metal  is 
never  used  in  its  preparation. 

E.  Does  not  coffee  grow  like  tea,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  Oh,  no,  my  love  ;  it  is  the  seed  con- 
tained in  a  berry  produced  by  a  moderate-sized 
tree,*  which  grows  erect  with  a  single  stem,  to 
the  height  of  from  eight  to  twelve  feet,  and  has 
long  undivided  slender  branches  bending  down- 
wards ;  these  are  furnished  with  evergreen  oppo- 
site leaves,  not  unlike  those  of  the  bay-tree.  The 
blossoms  are  white,  setting  on  short  foot-stalks, 
and  resembling  the  flowers  of  the  jasmine.  The 
fruit  which  succeeds  is  a  red  berry,  like  a  cher- 
ry, having  a  pale,  insipid,  and  somewhat  glutinous 
pulp,  and  enclosing  two  hard  oval  seeds,  each 
about  the  size  of  a  common  pea.  One  side  of  the 
seed  is  convex,  while  the  other  is  flat,  having  in 
it  a  little  straight  furrow ;  and,  when  growing,  the 
flat  sides  are  towards  each  other.  These  seeds 
are  covered  with  a  membrane. 

Mrs.  E.  The  appearance  of  a  coffee-planta- 
tion, during  the  seasons  of  flowering,  which  does 
not  last  longer  than  a  day  or  two,  is  very  interest- 
ing. In  one  night  the  blossoms  expand  so  pro- 
fusely as  to  appear  like  trees  in  England  when  a 
snow-storm  has  come  at  the  close  of  autumn,  and 
loaded  them  while  full  of  foliage.  The  seeds  are 
known  to  be  ripe  by  the  dark  red  color  of  the 
berries,  and,  if  not  then  gathered,  they  will  drop 
from  the  trees.  'When  the  Arabian  cultivator/ 
says  Mr.  Edwards,  '  sees  that  his  coffee  is  ripe, 
he  spreads  large  cloths  under  his  trees,  which  he 
s,  from  time  to  time,  to  make  the  ripe  cher- 
*  CofFea  Arabica. 


162  GATHERING    OF    COFFEE. 

ries  fall.  He  never  pulls  one  grain  of  coffee  with 
the  hand,  whatever  appearance  it  may  have  of  ma- 
turity. He  considers  none  as  ripe  but  such  as 
fall  on  lightly  shaking  the  tree/  The  berries  are 
afterwards  spread  upon  mats,  and  exposed  to  the 
sun's  rays  until  perfectly  dry,  when  the  husk  is 
broken  with  large  heavy  rollers,  made  either  of 
stone  or  of  wood.  The  coffee,  thus  freed  from  its 
husk,  is  again  dried  thoroughly  in  the  sun,  that  it 
may  not  be  liable  to  heat  when  packed  for  trans- 
portation. 

F.  Where  does  coffee  grow  best,  papa  7 
Mr.  E.  In  Arabia  and  other  parts  of  the  East. 
That  called  Mocha  is  considered  the  best.  It  is, 
however,  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies.  There 
the  gathering  is  different  to  the  mode  just  de- 
scribed. Negroes  are  set  to  gather  such  of  the 
berries  as  are  sufficiently  ripe  ;  and  each  one  is 
provided  with  a  canvas  bag,  having  an  iron  ring, 
or  hoop,  at  its  mouth,  to  keep  it  always  open  ;  and 
the  bag  is  slung  round  the  neck,  so  as  to  leave 
both  hands  at  liberty.  As  often  as  it  is  filled,  the 
contents  are  transferred  to  a  large  basket  placed 
to  receive  them.  When  the  trees  are  in  full  bear- 
ing, an  industrious  man  will  pick  three  bushels  in 
a  day,  and  each  bushel  will  yield  ten  pounds 
weight  of  coffee.  The  husks  are  separated  from 
the  seeds  by  mills.  Coffee  has  also  to  be  roasted 
for  use. 

Mrs.  E.  The  time  in  which  coffee  was  first 
used  in  the  western  parts  of  Europe  is  uncertain. 
The  traveller,  Pietro  della  Valle,  writing  from 
Constantinople  in  1615  to  a  Roman,  informed  him 
that  he  should  teach  Europe  in  what  manner  the 


FIRST    USE    OF    COFFEE.  lt)b 

Turks  took  what  he  called  '  Cahue ; '  but  Purchas 
was  also  '  a  pilgrim  '  at  the  time  Valle  wrote,  and 
he  thus  describes  what  he  called  '  Cqffa  :'  '  they 
drink  it  as  hot  as  they  can  eudure  it;  it  is  as 
black  as  soot,  and  tastes  not  much  unlike  it ; 
good,  they  say,  for  digestion  and  mirth/  The 
celebrated  Thevenot,  in  1658,  gave  coffee  after 
dinner ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  not  at  all  in- 
viting, and  to  have  been  considered  as  the  whim  of 
a  traveller.  Ten  years  afterwards,  a  Turkish  am- 
bassador at  Paris  made  it  very  fashionable.  So 
early,  however,  as  1652,  it  was  known  to  us  ;  for 
an  English  merchant  engaged  a  Greek  servant, 
who,  knowing  how  to  prepare  it,  opened  a  house 
to  sell  it  publicly  ;  and  I  happen  to  have,  among 
my  papers,  the  following  copy  of  his  hand-bill  : 
*  The  vertue  of  the  coffee-drink,  first  publiquely 
made  and  sold  in  England,  by  Pasque  Rosee,  in 
St.  Michael's  Alley,  Cornhilt,  at  the  sign  of  his 
own  head. ' 

E.  He  had  a  better  head  than  many,  mam- 
ma ;  though  his  was  nothing,  after  all,  to  yours 
and  papa's  ;  yet  it  was  a  little  conceited  to  make 
a  sign  of  it.  How  strange  it  would  have  been  if 
Simpkins,  at  the  New  Inn,  had  done  so,  instead 
of  putting  up  that  splendid  painting  of  the  Swan 
and  Two  Necks.  But  you  said,  some  time  ago, 
that  I  liked  sugar  in  my  coffee  and  tea  ;  and  I 
should  be  glad  to  hear  something  about  that. 

Mr.  E.  Sugar,  my  dear,  is  the  produce  of  a  reed 
or  cane,*  which  terminates  in  leaves  or  blades, 
whose  edges  are  like' that  of  a  fine  saw.  The  body 
of  the  cane  is  strong,  brittle,  and,  when  ripe,  of  a 

*  Arundo  saccharifem. 


164  THE    SUGAR-CANE. 

fine  straw  color  inclined  to  yellow:  it  contains 
a  soft,  pithy  substance,  which  yields  a  copious  sup- 
ply of  juice,  of  a  sweetness,  it  has  been  said,  the 
least  cloying  and  most  agreeable  in  nature.  The 
distance  between  each  joint  of  the  cane  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  soil :  in  general  it  is 
from  one  to  three  inches  in  length,  and  from  half 
an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  length  of  a 
whole  cane  depends  on  circumstances  :  in  strong 
lands,  richly  manured,  it  sometimes  measures 
twelve  feet  from  the  stole  or  root  to  the  upper  joint: 
the  general  height,  however,  without  the  flag  part, 
is  from  three  feet  and  a  half  to  seven  feet ;  and, 
in  very  rich  lands,  it  has  been  known  to  put 
forth  upwards  of  one  hundred  suckers,  or  shoots. 
The  canes  are  ordinarily  ripe  in  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen months,  and,  when  cut,  are  taken  to  the  mill. 

E.  What  is  done  with  them  then,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  The  juice  of  them  is  expressed  by 
passing  them  between  two  iron  cylinders,  or 
rollers :  then  it  is  boiled  with  lime-water,  which 
causes  a  thick  scum  to  rise  ;  the  liquor  is  after- 
wards let  off  below,  and  is  reduced,  by  evapora- 
tion, to  a  small  quantity,  when  it  is  suffered  to 
chrystalize  by  standing  in  a  vessel  having  many 
holes  at  the  bottom,  imperfectly  stopped,  so  that 
the  syrup  may  drain  off.  The  product  thus  ob- 
tained is  what  we  call  raw,  or  moist  sugar;  and, 
to  change  it  into  loaf-sugar,  it  is  dissolved  in 
water,  and  purified  either  by  bullock's  blood  or 
the  white  of  eggs,  when  the  clear  liquor  is  again 
evaporated,  and,  poured  into  moulds,  becomes 
what  was  required.  Still  it  wants  to  be  whitened  ; 
the  mould  is  therefore  inverted,  and  its  open  base 


COMPENSATION.  165 

being  covered  with  clay,  through  which  water  is 
fnade  to  pass,  this,  slowly  trickling  through  the 
sugar,  carries  off  what  discolored  it. 

E.  And  how,  papa,  do  they  make  sugar- 
candy  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  only  the  regular  crystals  obtained 
by  slow  evaporation ;  and  barley-sugar  is  sugar 
melted  by  heat,  and  afterwards  formed  with  mod- 
els of  the  shape  it  bears. 

Mrs.  E.  I  never  think  of  the  sugar-cane 
without  pitying  the  enslaved  Africans  who  are 
-compelled  to  cultivate  it.  This  appears  to  ex- 
pose them  to  the  most  toilsome  drudgery  and 
.severe  treatment.  The  earth  was  cursed  for  the 
sin  of  man  ;  but,  had  it  been  equally  affected, 
the  natives  of  the  Torrid  Zone  would  have  felt 
it  more  than  the  rest  of  their  species.  Unwearied 
labor  and  the  sweat  of  the  brow  had  thus  been 
pre-eminently  theirs.  But  we  have  adverted 
before  *  to  that  provision  of  the  Creator  by  which 
disadvantages  are  compensated ;  and  here  we 
may  observe  a  most  interesting  instance.  The 
.same  glowing  atmosphere  that  renders  long-con- 
tinued labor  so  arduous,  lessens  greatly  the  need 
of  it,  by  giving  to  the  soil  with  little  culture  much 
iriore  fertility  than  laborious  tillage  will  impart  in 
temperate  climes.  Many  nutritious  fruits,  grate- 
ful to  the  taste,  and  well  adapted  to  the  support 
of  man,  either  grow  spontaneously,  or,  when 
once  planted,  require  scarce  any  further  toil,  but 
yield  a  constant  and  copious  supply  of  food.  To 
doom  him,  then,  to  incessant  labor  in  such  circum- 
stances, is  an  act  of  oppression,  in  defiance  of 

*  '  Art  in  Nature,'  p.  237. 


166  THE    PLANTAIN. 

the  purposes  and  provisions  of  the  great  Lord  of 
all. 

E.   I  shall  never  forget,  mamma,  those  lines  of 
Cowper's  you  taught  me,  in  which  he  says  — 

'  Slaves  cannot  breathe  in  England  ;  if  their  lungs 
Receive  our  air,  that  moment  they  are  free  ;' 

and  where  he  wishes  that  they  may  be  so  every 
where.  But  I- fear  we  tire  you,  or  else,  perhaps, 
you  could  describe  some  of  those  trees  which 
yield  fruit  without  labor. 

Mr.  E.  There  is  the  plantain,*  which  rises 
with  a  stalk,  about  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  tapering  up- 
wards to  the  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet. 
The  leaves,  which  are  in  a  cluster  at  the  top,  are 
very  large,  being  about  six  feet  long  and  two  feet 
broad  ;  the  middle  rib  is  strong,  but  the  rest  of 
the  leaf  is  tender,  and  apt  to  be  torn  by  the 
wind.  The  leaves  grow  with  great  rapidity  after 
the  stalk  has  reached  its  proper  height.  They 
come  out  from  its  centre,  and  are  rolled  up  at 
their  first  appearance  ;  but  when  they  are  advan- 
ced above  the  stalk,  they  expand  and  turn  back- 
wards. It  is  said  that  their  growth  may  almost 
be  discerned  with  the  naked  eye  ;  and  if  a  fine 
line  is  drawn  across,  level  with  the  top  of  the 
leaf,  the  leaf  will  be  nearly  an  inch  above  it  in 
the  course  of  an  hour.  The  spike  of  the  flowers 
rises  from  the  centre  of  the  leaves  to  the  height 
of  about  four  feet.  At  first,  the  flowers  are 
enclosed  in  a  sheath  of  a  fine  purple  color ;  but, 
as  they  come  to  maturity,  that  drops  off.  The 

*  Musa  paradisiaca. 


THtl    11ANANA,  167 

fruit  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  eight  or  nine 
inches  long,  and  bent  a  little  on  <w  side  ;  it  is 
at  first  green  ;  as  it  ripens  it  turns  yellow,  and  is 
filled  with  a  pulp  of  a  luscious  sweet  flavor.  The 
spikes  of  fruit  sometimes  weigh  upwards  of  forty 
pounds'. 

Mrs.  E.  There  is  also  the  banana,*  which  is 
widely  diffused  through  tropical  climes.  Its  fruit 
is  of  the  shape  of  a  cucumber,  about  four  or  five 
inches  long,  and  of  a  highly  grateful  flavor.  Its 
leaves  are  two  yards  longj  and  a  foot  broad  in  the 
middle ;  they  join  to  the  top  of  the  body  of  the 
trees,  and  frequently  contain  in  their  cavities 
a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  runs  out,  on  a 
small  incision  being  made  in  the  tree  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  leaves.  Its  growth  is  very  rapid. 
Eight  or  nine  months  after  the  sucker  is  planted, 
the  banana  begins  to  form  its  clusters  of  fruit, 
and  these  may  be  collected  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  months.  The  whole  labor  of  cultivation 
whjch  is  required  for  a  plantation  of  banana  is  to 
cut  the  stalks  laden  with  ripe  fruit,  and  to  give 
the  plants  a  little  nourishment,  once  or  twice  a 
year,  by  digging  round  the  roots.  A  spot  of 
scarcely  more  than  a  thousand  square  feet  will 
contain  from  thirty  to  forty  banana  plants.  A 
cluster  produced  on  a  single  plant  often  contains 
from  one  hundred  and  sixty  to  one  hundred  and 
eighty  fruits,  and  weighs  from  seventy  to  eighty 
pounds;  but,  reckoning  the  cluster  at  forty 
pounds,  such  a  plantation  would  produce  more 
than  four  thousand  pounds  of  nutritious  sub- 
stance. The  ripe  fruit  is  preserved,  like  the  fig, 
by  being  dried  in  the  sun,  and  is  an  agreeable 
sapieiitum, 


168  THE    BilEAD-FRUlT    TREE. 

and  healthy  aliment.  Meal  is  extracted  from  the 
fruit,  by  cutting  it  in  slices,  drying  it  in  the  sun, 
and  then  pounding  it 

F.  What  kind  of  taste  has  the  fruit,  nr.'mma? 

Mrs.  E.  Some  of  the  varieties  are  said  to 
possess  an  excellent  flavor,  surpassing  the  finest 
pear  ;  and  others  are  compared  to  a  choice 
reinette  apple,  when  kept  through  the  winter. 
The  banana  has  frequently  produced  its  bunches 
of  yellow  fruits  in  hot-houses  in  this  kingdom; 
and  it  appears  probable  that  there  will  be  as 
little  difficulty  in  ripening  the  fruit  as  that  of 
any  tropical  tree  whatever. 

E.  I  wish,  mamma,  we  had  some  ripe  now  ; 
how  pleasant  they  would  be  !  But  here  people 
can  work  without  being  so  tired  as  they  are 
where  the  plantains  and  bananas  grow,  and 
where  — but,  papa,  I  do  n't  recollect  any  more. 

Mr.  E.  There  is  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  of  which 
you  have  heard,  and  also  the  bread-fruit  tree. 
When  the  seeds  fail,  which  is  the  case  in  the 
Friendly  Isles,  the  fruit  grows  to  a  prodigious 
size  ;  when  the  seeds  are  perfected,  it  is  in  a 
great  measure  at  the  expense  of  the  fleshy  part, 
whose  place  they  occupy,  and  the  fruit  is  conse- 
quently inferior,  both  in  size  and  flavor.  This 
tree  grows  to  the  size  of  an  ash  in  America,  and 
is  not  unlike  that  tree  in  form  and  the  color  of  its 
bark.  The  branches  affect  an  upright  position. 
The  leaves  are  much  like  those  of  the  fig,  but 
more  deeply  indented,  besides  growing  to  a  far 
greater  size,  some  being  a  foot  and  a  half  long. 
Its  appearance  is  very  stately  and  luxuriant. 
The  fruit  is  egg-shaped^  and  sometimes  measures 


THE    BREAD-FRUIT  TREE.  169 

twenty-two  inches  in  its  shortest,  and  twenty-five 
in  its  longest,  circumferences.  The  rind  is 
smooth,  green,  and  marked  with  hexagonal 
specks.  Under  this  skin  lies  the  pulp,  which  is 
eaten ;  and  within  that  a  fibrous  core,  containing 
the  seeds.  The  tree  is  propagated  by  scions 
springing  from  the  root  of  the  old  stock.  These 
are  either  suffered  to  remain  and  grow  up  in  a 
clump,  or  are  transplanted  singly.  They  require 
to  be  carefully  attended  to  :  the  ground  must  be 
kept  clear  from  weeds  for  some  time,  and  also 
well  fenced  from  the  hogs,  who  devour  the  plants 
greedily  whenever  they  can  light  upon  such 
dainties.  Bread-fruit  trees  are  cultivated  almost 
entirely  on  the  low  grounds,  rarely  thriving  on 
the  mountain  sides,  or  very  near  the  sea.  They 
retain  perennial  verdure,  and  bear  four  crops  of 
fruit  in  the  year. 

F.  Have  they  many  uses,  like  some  other 
trees  ? 

Mr.  E.  The  manifold  bounty  of  Providence  is 
remarkably  manifested  in  giving  this  valuable 
product  of  a  soil  not  copious  in,  variety  of  plants, 
to  the  people  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  It 
supplies  them  with  food,  raiment,  and  timber; 
each  in  its  kind  abundant  and  excellent.  Their 
canoes  are  hollowed  out  of  its  trunk,  or  framed 
from  its  planks ;  the  beams,  rafters,  and  flooring 
of  their  houses,  are  hewn  out  of  its  substance  ; 
and  it  also  furnishes  a  good  pitch,  in  the  gum 
which  exudes  from  holes  bored  into  its  stem.  Of 
the  bark  a  very  useful  description  of  cloth  is  pre- 
pared, and  with  this,  indeed,  they  would  want 
no  other.  The  fruit  is  a  delicate  and  wholesome 
14* 


170  THE    BREAD-FKUIT    TREE. 

substitute  for  bread ;  being  very  nutritious,  ancf 
of  a  sweet  and  pleasant  flavor.  Various  modes 
of  dressing  this  food  are  in  use  among  the  na- 
tives. The  skin  being  pared  away,  the  pulp  is^ 
most  generally  split  and  roasted,  or  rather  bak-- 
ed,  in  earthen  ovens,  upon  and  under  hot  stones  £ 
and  it  is  often  thus  cooked  with  part  of  a  hog,  a 
fowl,  or  a  fish.  When  taken  out,  it  is  soft  an£ 
mealy,  much  resembling,  in  color  and  taste,  line 
sponge  biscuit.  The  natives  frequently  beat  or 
squeeze  it  in  their  hands,  and  dip  the  pieces  in 
salt  water,  when  they  eat  it.  This  fruit,  in  fact,, 
is  the  principal  support  of  tbe  people,  who  sel- 
dom make  a  meal  without  a  large  proportion  of 
it.  They  call  it  miory. 

E.  And  does  the  tree  always  yield  fruit  ? 

Mr.  E.  No ;  there  are  moie  than  three  months 
out  of  the  twelve  when  the  fruit  is  either  not  to 
be  obtained,  or  very  scarce.  To  compensate 
this  inconvenience,  the  inhabitants  preserve 
great  quantities  of  that  which  is  quite  ripe  in  pits, 
about  four  feet  deep,  and  of  the  same  width. 
These  pits  are  carefully  lined  with  grass,  and 
then  with  the  leaves  of  the  tii  plant,  which  give 
an  agreeable  flavor  to  the  preserved  fruit.  The 
latter,  being  cleared  of  the  green  coating,  and 
split,  is  thrown  together  on  a  heap,  and  covered 
with  leaves  for  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  as  the  state  of  the  weather  may  be.  The 
pile  is  then  opened,  and  the  cores  of  all  the  split 
pieces  being  extracted,  these  are  again  laid  to-' 
gether ;  after  which  the  whole  undergoes  a  pro- 
cess of  fermentation,  and  becomes  soft.  It  is 
then  stowed  in  the  pit,  covered  with  grass,  and 


CONVERSATION.  171 

the  grass  pressed  down  with  stones.  The  bread- 
fruit, thus  cured,  is  taken  out  of  these  store-pits, 
from  time  to  time,  as  it  may  be  wanted,  in  the 
state  of  a  sour  paste,  when  it  is  dressed  according 
to  every  man's  taste.  Though  the  natives,  from 
habit,  are  fond  of  it  this  way,  the  food  is  difficult 
of  digestion,  and  by  no  means  wholesome. 

Mrs.  E.  You  have  passed  a  pleasant  evening, 
I  am  sure,  rny  dears ;  and  I  think  you  have  also 
learned  much.  We,  too,  have  an  advantage  be- 
sides that  of  our  pleasure  in  gratifying  and  in- 
structing you.  By  and  by,  you  will  be  more  than 
listeners,  and  must  contribute  to  others  as  well 
as  receive  from  them  ;  for  so  Mrs.  Hannah  More 
has  said  :  — 

'  Our  intellectual  ore  must  shine, 

Not  slumber,  idly,  in  the  mine. 

Let  education's  moral  mint 

The  noblest  images  imprint  ; 

Let  taste  her  curious  touchstone  hold, 

To  try  if  standard  be  the  gold  ; 

But,  't  is  thy  commerce,  conversation, 

Must  give  it  use  by  circulation  ; 

That  noble  commerce  of  mankind, 

Whose  precious  merchandize  is  mind  ." 

But  here  we  must  pause.  How  gloriously  the  sun 
is  setting  !  —  and  hark  !  the  blackbird  and  thrush 
are  pouring  forth  their  evening  song. 


172  THE    AGED    TREE. 


THE  AGED  TREE. 

'  I  STOOD  for  some  time,  this  morning/  said 
Mr.  Elwood,  '  to  gaze  once  more  at  that  noble 
forest-tree  in  the  lane,  which  has  so  long  contin- 
ued beautiful  and  unmutilated.  It  stands  on  the 
side  of  the  waste,  shading  and  sheltering  the 
neighboring  cottage,  having  escaped  the  hedger's 
bill,  and  the  woodman's  axe,  and  defied  the  fury 
of  a  hundred  storms.  It  is  not  so  gigantic  as- 
some  are,  but  it  deserves  regard  from  the  vegeta- 
ble powers  which  have  existed  and  still  continue 
in  its  trunk.  At  some  very  distant  period,  the 
bole  appears  to  have  lost,  either  by  accident  or 
design,  its  leading  shoot;  and,  in  consequence, 
has  thrown  out  several  branches  at  each  side  ; 
three  still  remain,  which  have  now  grown  into 
trees,  existing  in  full  vigor,  and  presenting  a 
beautiful  appearance.  It  is,  indeed,  a  fine  speci- 
men of  an  oak,  with  all  the  twistings,  furrows, 
and  irregularities,  which  this  tree,  when  it  grows 
freely,  generally  exhibits,  stretching  its  arms 
to  the  sun  with  a  graceful  dignity.  Its  age  I 
cannot  tell.  In  young  trees,  the  rings  of  the 
wood  often  enable  us  to  judge,  but,  in  old  ones, 
these  marks  are  not  a  sufficient  guide.  Still,  it 
must  have  been  long  —  very  long  —  since  it  was 
a  sapling,  and  first  put  forth  its  light  green  foli- 
age/ 

'  It  is  indeed,  a  fine  object  V  said  Mrs.  Elwood ; 
'  Emma  and  Frederick,  you  should  observe  it.' 

*  I  have  done  so,  again  and  again,  dear  mam- 


VENERABLE    OAK.  173 

roa,'  said  Emma,  '  for  my  brother  showed  it   me 
—  I  don't  know  how  long  since/ 

'  I  am  glad  Frederick  was  so  observant,'  re- 
joined Mrs.  Elwood,  *  and  so  anxious,  too,  that 
you  should  partake  the  pleasure  he  enjoyed. 
Such  qualities  should  always  be  discovered.' 

*  And  they  will  never  go  unrewarded/   added 
Mr.  Elwood;  'kindness  always  recompenses  the 
heart  which  cherishes  it,   and  the   approval  and 
attention  of  others  will  not  always  be  withheld. 
This  morning,  for  instance,  I  propose  that  we 
should  give  you  an  account  of  the  oak,  as  a  re- 
ward for  this  act.     What  say  you,  dears?  ' 

'  We  shall  think  it  a  very  kind  one/  said  Em- 
ma, while  Frederick  looked  delighted. 

*  In  the  Scriptures,'  said  Mr.  Elwood,  '  we  read 
much  of  the  oak  ;   but   there  are    several  words 
which  have  been  thus  rendered  by  our    transla- 
tors although,  in  other  passages,   they  have  ren- 
dered them  the  plain-tree,  teel-tree,  &,c.     Some- 
times, it  is  thought,  too,  they  have  confounded  it 
with    the    terebinth.     This    is  an  evergreen,   of 
moderate  size,  but  having  the  top  and   branches 
large  in  proportion  to  the  body :    the    leaves  re- 
semble those  of  the  olive,  but  are  of  a  green  col- 
or, intermixed  with   red   and  purple :    the   twigs 
that  bear  them  always  terminate  in  a  single  leaf: 
the  flowers,  which  are  purple,  are  like    those  of 
the  vine,  and  grow  in  bunches  :  the  fruit,  of  the 
size  of  juniper-berries,  hangs  in  clusters,    and  is 
remarkably  juicy.     The  tree  abounds  near  Jeru- 
salem, and  in  Cyprus.     Josephus  says,  moreover, 
that,  six  furlongs  from  Hebron,  a  very   large  ter- 
ebinth was  shown,  which  the  inhabitants  of  the 


174  THE  TERFBINTH-—  THE  DRUIDS. 

country  believed  to  be  as  old  as  -the  world  ;  and 
Eusebius  assures  us  that,  in  his  time,  this  tere- 
binth, under  which  il  is  said  Abraham  entertain- 
ed the  angels,  was  still  to  be  seen,  and  was  held 
in  great  veneration.  The  benediction  of  Jacob 
on  Naphtali,  is  rendered  by  some,  '  Naphtali 
is  a  spreading  terebinth,  producing  beautiful 
branches.' 

Mrs.  E.  In  the  history  of  Greece,  we  meet  in 
very  early  times  with  the  famous  oracle  of  Jupi- 
ter, that  is,  a  place  where  it  was  said  his  voice 
was  heard,  at  the  oaks  of  Dodona.  And,  in 
Gaul  and  Britain,  we  find  the  highest  regard  paid 
to  this  tree  and  its  misletoe,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Druids  —  the  oak-prophets,  or  priests. 
They  thought  the  misletoe  was  sent  from  heaven 
as  a  sign  that  God  had  chosen  the  tree  on  which 
it  grew  ;  and,  though  rarely  found,  it  was  treated., 
as  soon  as  discovered,  with  great  ceremony., 
They  styled  it,  indeed,  the  curer  of  all  ills,  and,, 
having  prepared  under  the  tree  feasts  and  sacri- 
fices, brought  to  it  two  white  bulls,  whose  horns 
were  then,  for  the  first  time,  tied.  After  this,  the 
priest,  attired  in  a  white  robe,  ascended  the  tree, 
and,  with  a  golden  pruning-hook,  cut  off  the  misle- 
toe, which  was  received  in  a  white  sheet.  Vic- 
tims were  then  sacrificed,  with  many  prayers  for 
the  blessing  of  God  on  his  own  gift.  And,  says 
Parkhurst,  '  Is  it  possible  for  a  Christian  to  read 
this  account  without  thinking  of  Him  who  was 
the  desire  of  all  nations,  of  the  man  whose  name 
was  the  BRANCH,  who  had  indeed  no  father  on 
earth,  but  came  down  from  heaven  ;  was  given 
to  heal  all  our  ills ;  and,  after  being  cut  off 


WILLIAM    RUFUS.  175 

through  the  divine  counsel,  was  wrapped  in  fine 
linen,  and  laid  in  the  sepulchre,  for  our  sakes  ? ' 
Mr.  E.  Venerated  as  the  oak  was,  for  the  su- 
perstitious rites  just  mentioned,  the  value  of  this 
tree  was  unknown  to  our  re*note  forefathers.  At 
an  early  period,  in  the  history  of  Britain,  it  was 
prized  chiefly  for  its  acorns.  When  the  Saxons 
held  sway,  the  fattening  of  hogs  upon  them  in 
the  forests  was  so  important,  that,  at  the  close  of 
the  seventh  century,  King  Ina  enacted  laws  for 
its  regulation.  The  failure  of  the  acorn-crop  is 
even  mentioned  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
famine.  One  of  the  most  vexatious  acts  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  in  turning  the  whole  of  the 
forests  into  hunting-grounds,  was  that  of  restrict- 
ing the  people  from  fattening  their  hogs  ;  and  this 
grievance  King  John  was  called  upon  to  redress 
at  Runnymede,  where  his  assembled  subjects 
compelled  him  to  sign  Magna  Charta. 

E.  Why,  papa,  was  it  such  a  grievance? 

Mr.  E.  Because  swine's  flesh  was  the  princi- 
pal food  of  most  nations  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
civilization.  Up  to  a  recent  period,  large  droves 
of  hogs  were  fattened  on  the  acorns  of  the  New 
Forest,  in  Hampshire,  under  the  guidance  of 
swine-herds,  who  called  them  together  every 
night  by  the  sound  of  a  horn. 

F.  Papa,  that  was,  I  think,  the  place  were 
William  Rufus  was  killed,  as  he  was  hunting,  by 
an  arrow  which  Sir  Walter    Tyrrell    shot  at  a 
stag,  but  which,  glancing  from  a  tree,  killed  the 
king. 

Mr.  E.  It  was,  my  dear.  It  is  not  well  for  us 
to  have  all  we  wish.  The  tract  of  land  which 


176  GROWTH  OP    OAK. 

William  desolated  for  liis  personal  amusement, 
was  fatal  to  several  of  his  family.  In  that  forest,, 
his  son  Richard,  and  a  nephew  of  the  same  name^ 
were  killed,  while  engaged  in  the  chase  ;  and  his 
son,  as  you  have  menfcioned,  lost  his  life  on  the 
same  spot,  and  when  employed  in  the  same  di- 
version. A  fine  oak  is  one  of  the  most  pictur-* 
esque  of  trees.  It  has  the  appearance  both  of 
strength  and  duration.  It  rears  its  head  against 
the  blast,  and,  while  others  are  twisted  from  the 
action  of  the  wind,  it  retains  its  form  uninjured. 
Its  twisted  branches,  too,  add  greatly  to  its  beau- 
ty, and,  remarkable  enough,  to  its  utility.  When 
it  stands  alone,  it  is  a  spreading  rather  than  ele- 
vated tree;  in  that  situation,  the  timber  is  also 
said  to  be  more  compact  and  firm,  and  the 
crooked  arms  are  better  adapted  for  ship-build- 
ing, than  when  the  trees  are  close  together.  In 
thickly-planted  groups,  the  oak  will  rise  to  the 
height  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  feet  before  it  be- 
gins to  decay ;  and,  in  some  of  the  choicer  trees, 
forty,  fifty,  or  even  sixty  feet  may  be  found  with- 
out a  single  lateral  branch,  and  at  the  same  time, 
of  considerable  size.  These  are  as  well  adapted 
for  beams  and  planking  as  others  are  for  crook- 
ed timbers,  and  therefore,  to  secure  a  proper  sup- 
ply for  maritime  and  domestic  purposes,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  them  in  both  situations. 

Mrs.  E.  Some  oaks  have  grown  to  an  im- 
mense size.  Among  the  ancient  trees  of  France, 
none,  perhaps,  is  more  remarkable  than  that  in 
the  burial-ground  of  Allonville.  It  measures, 
above  the  roots,  upwards  of  thirty-five  feet  round, 
and,  at  the  height  of  a  man,  twenty-six  feet.  A 


4 
OAK    OF    ALLONVILLE.  177 

little  higher  up,  it  extends  to  a  greater  size,  and, 
at  eight  feet  from  the  ground,  enormous  branch- 
es spring  from  the  sides,  and  spread  outwards,  so 
that  they  cover  a  vast  space  with  their  shade. 
The  height  of  the  tree  does  not  answer  to  its 
girth :  the  trunk,  from  the  roots  to  the  summit, 
forms  a  complete  cone ;  and  the  inside  of  this  is 
hollow  throughout  the  whole  of  its  height.  Sev- 
eral openings,  the  largest  of  which  is  below,  af- 
ford access  to  this  cavity.  All  the  central  parts 
having  been  long  destroyed,  it  is  only  by  the  out- 
er layers  of  the  alburnum,  and  by  the  bark,  that 
this  venerable  tree  is  supported  ;  yet  it  is  still  full 
of  vigor,  adorned  with  abundance  of  leaves,  and 
laden  with  acorns.  The  lower  part  of  the  hol- 
low trunk  has  been  transformed  into  a  chapel,  of 
six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter,  carefully  wainscot- 
ed and  paved,  and  guarded  by  an  open  iron  gate. 
Above  and  close  to  the  chapel  is  a  small  cham- 
ber, containing  a  bed  ;  and,  leading  to  it,  there 
is  a  stair-case,  which  twists  round  the  body  of 
the  tree.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  service 
is  performed  in  this  chapel.  The  summit  has 
been  broken  off  many  years,  but  there  is  a  sur- 
face, at  the  top  of  the  trunk,  of  the  diameter  of  a 
very  large  tree,  and  from  it  rises  a  pointed  roof, 
covered  with  slates,  in  the  form  of  a  steeple, 
which  is  surmounted  with  an  iron  cross,  that  rais- 
es itself,  it  is  said,  in  the  middle  of  the  leaves, 
like  an  antique  hermitage  above  the  surrounding 
wood.  The  cracks  which  occur  in  various  parts 
of  the  tree  are,  like  the  fracture  whence  the  stee- 
ple springs,  closely  covered  with  slate,  which,  by 
replacing  the  bark,  doubtless  contributes  to  its 
15 


178  OAKS    OF    ENGLAND, 

preservation.  Over  the  entrance  to  the  chapel, 
an  inscription  appears,  which  states  that  it  was 
erected  by  the  Abb6  du  Detroit,  curate  of  Allon- 
ville,  in  the  year  1696 ;  and  over  the  door  of  the 
upper  room  is  another,  dedicating  it  '  To  our  La- 
dy of  Peace.' 

F.  I  should  like  to  visit  the  chapel-oak  ex- 
ceedingly ;  but  are  no  trees  of  this  kind  famous 
in  England  ? 

Mrs.  E.  There  are  several,  rny  dear.  The 
celebrated  Fairlop  oak,  in  Hainault  Forest,  Es- 
sex, is  said  to  have  measured,  at  three  feet  from 
the  ground,  about  thirty-six  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  the  extremities  of  the  branches  gave  a 
circle  of  three  hundred  feet.  At  Oakley,  in  Bed- 
fordshire, the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of  Tavistock, 
there  is  an  oak,  now  in  perfect  health,  which 
contains  about  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
cubic  feet  of  timber,  and  the  branches  overspread 
a  space  of  five  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
superficial  feet  of  ground.  There  are  also  many 
others,  in  the  parks  of  Welbeck  and  Woburn,  of 
great  size. 

E.  Is  the  oak  in  which  Charles  the  Second 
concealed  himself  after  the  batttle  of  Worcester 
still  to  be  seen  ? 

Mr.  E:  No,  my  dear }  and  though  several 
trees  were  raised  from  its  acorns,  the  race  seems 
now  to  be  lost.  The  oak-apple,  which  is  still 
worn  by  some  of  our  rustics  on  the  twenty-ninth 
of  May,  in  commemoration  of  that  event,  is  wor- 
thy our  attention.  It  is  usually  as  large  as  a  wal- 
nut, or  small  apple,  which  is  not  quite  round. 
The  skin  is  smooth,  and  tinged  with  red  and  yel- 


THE    CYN1PS.  179 

low,  like  a  ripe  apple  ;  and,  at  the  base,  there  is, 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  summer,  a  calyx,  or  cup, 
of  five  or  six  small,  brown,  scaly  leaves  ;  but  these 
fall  off  as  the  season  advances.  If  you  cut  an 
oak-apple  transversely,  you  will  perceive  a  num- 
ber of  oval  grains,  each  containing  a  grub,  and 
imbedded  in  a  fruit-looking  fleshy  substance, 
having  fibres  running  through  it.  As  these  fi- 
bres, however,  run  in  the  direction  of  the  stem, 
they  are  best  seen  when  the  gall  is  cut  vertically, 
and  this  also  shows  —  what  is  very  extraordina- 
ry-—that  each  fibre  terminates  in  one  of  the 
small  grains,  like  a  vessel  for  carrying  nourish- 
ment. 

F.  What  insect,  papa,  produces  these  galls  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  cynips,  whose  mechanism  is 
very  remarkable.  It  is  provided  with  a  needle 
in  a  sheath,  so  peculiarly  constructed  that  the 
needle  can  be  extended  to  double  the  length  of 
the  animal  itself;  thus  it  forms  a  nest  for  its  off- 
spring, while  the  young,  in  the  same  manner, 
pierce  their  way  out  of  the  vegetable  shell  which 
has  been  their  protection.  But  the  dwelling  is 
not  always  made  in  the  same  way.  One  kind  of 
apple  or  gall,  inhabited  only  by  one  grub,  is  h  -rd 
and  woody  on  the  outside,  resembling  a  little 
wooden  ball,  of  a  yellowish  color,  but  internally 
it  is  of  a  soft,  spongy  texture.  The  latter  sub- 
stance, however,  encloses  a  small  hard  gall, 
which  is  the  chamber  of  the  insect.  Galls  of 
this  kind  are  often  found  in  clusters  of  from  two 
to  seven,  near  the  extremity  of  a  branch,  but  al- 
ways separate. 

Mrs,  E.  An  excrescence  grows  on  the  catkins 


J80  NUT-GALLS. 

of  the  oak,  having  the  appearance  of  a  straggling 
bunch  of  currants,  or  bird-cherries.  The  galls  re- 
semble currants  which  have  fallen  from  the  tree 
before  they  are  ripe,  and  seem  not  to  differ  from 
tho^e  formed  on  the  leaves  of  the  oak  and  other 
trees,  which  are  usually  of  a  green  color  tinged 
with  red.  The  oak  from  which  the  nut-galls  of 
commerce  are  procured*  is  very  common  in  Asia 
Minor  ;  but  Europeans  were  long  with  very  little 
information  on  the  subject,  although  the.galls  were 
so  extensively  used.  It  is  a  shrub  seldom  exceed- 
ing six  feet  in  height,  and  was  introduced  by  M. 
OJivier  to  France,  where  it  is  cultivated  as  a  gar- 
den shrub,  and  grows  well  in  the  open  air.  The 
best  galls,  which  are  used  for  ink  and  for  dyeing, 
come  from  Aleppo,  and  of  these  a  hundred  and 
seventy-four  tons  were  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1>27. 

E.  I  think,  mamma,  we  are  very  much  indebted 
to  these  little  creatures ;  though  I  did  not  know 
before  that  we  owed  them  anything.  Perhaps 
papa  could  not  wear  black,  if  it  were  not  not  for 
them.  Are  there  many  insects  of  this  kind  ? 

Mrs.  E.  In  Spain,  in  some  parts  of  France, 
and  along  the  Mediterranean  coasts  of  Africa, 
there  is  found  a  small  species  of  oak, t  which  nour- 
ishes large  quantities  of  a  small  insect,  \  which,  be- 
ing gathered,  forms  an  article  of  commerce  call- 
ed Kermes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  province  of 
Murcia  gather  them,  as  their  only  mode  of  sub- 
sistence. Latreille  has  united  this  insect  to  the 

*  Quercus  infectoria.  f  Quercus  coccifera. 

t  Coccus  ilicis. 


THE    MISLETOE.  181 

• 

cochineal  family,  which  it  resembles,  not  only  in 
form,  but  in  producing  a  scarlet  dye.  Till  the 
discovery  of  the  cochineal  insect,  the  Kermes  was 
the  only  substance  used  in  dyeing  scarlet,  after 
the  disuse  of  the  shell-fish  that  produced  the  Ty- 
rian  purple,  now  called  scarlet,  of  the  Romans. 
In  England,  and  other  places,  the  cochineal  is 
now  generally  used  for  this  color. 

F.  What  is  the  misletoe,  papa,  that  the  Druids 
were  so  fond  of,  and  which  the  villagers  like  to 
have  hanging  up  in  their  cottages  at  Christmas, 
when  they  deck  them  so  gaily  with  the  holly,  and 
its  scarlet  berries  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  parasitical  plant ;  that  is,  one  of 
those  which  are  produced  on  the  trunks,  branch- 
es, or  any  other  parts  of  vegetables,  and  which,  in 
some  instances,  will  not  grow  in  the  ground.  The 
misletoe  called  viscum  album,  for  example,  is  an 
evergreen  shrub,  and  grows  in  great  perfection  on 
apple-trees.  No  one  has  ever  yet  succeeded  in 
making  it  take  root  in  the  earth ;  but,  if  the  ber- 
ries, when  fully  ripe,  are  rubbed  on  the  smooth 
bark  of  almost  any  tree,  they  will  adhere  closely, 
and  produce  plants  the  following  winter.  But, 
Frederick,  how  do  you  think  we  obtain  cork  ? 

F.  I  am  sure  I  do  not  know,  papa ;  but  I  will 
try  to  remember,  if  you  inform  us. 

Mr.  E.  From  a  species  of  oak,*  which  is  not 
so  large  as  the  common  one.  It  is  a  broad-leaved 
evergreen,  well  known  even  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  :  the  latter,  indeed,  used  it  not  only  as 
we  do,  for  stopping  bottles,  but  for  floats  to  their 
nets  and  fishing-tackle,  and  for  buoys  to  their  an- 

*  Quercus  suber. 
15* 


182  CORK. 

chors.  We  read,  too,  that  Camillas  had,  on  one 
occasion,  a  life-preserver  of  cork  under  his  dress. 
The  cork  is  the  bark  which  the  tree  pushes  out- 
ward ,  as  is  common  to  all  trees,  but  here  the  out- 
er bark  is  of  larger  quantity,  and  more  speedily 
renewed.  When  removed,  there  is  below  it  an 
inner  bark  ;  and  from  this  the  cork  is  re-produced 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  while  the  tree  is  said 
to  grow  more  vigorously,  and  to  live  longer,  than 
if  the  cork  were  not  removed.  The  first  time  the 
cork  is  taken  off  is  when  the  tree  is  about  fifteen 
years  old;  but  the  crop  is  thin,  hard,  full  of  fissures, 
and,  consequently,  of  little  value  ;  and  the  second, 
which  is  removed  about  ten  years  after,  is  also  of 
inferior  quality.  The  operation  is  afterwards  re- 
peated about  once  in  8  or  10  years  ;  the  produce 
being  greater  in  quantity,  and  superior  in  quality, 
every  time. 

F.  In  what  way  do  they  take  it  off,  papa  ? 

Mr.  E.  They  cleave  the  bark  lengthways,  at 
certain  intervals,  down  to  the  crown  of  the  root 
with  an  axe,  having  a  handle  which  terminates  in 
a  wedge;  and  a  circular  incision  is  then  made 
from  each  end  of  the  previous  cuts.  The  bark 
is  then  beaten,  to  detach  it  from  that  beneath,  and 
it  is  lifted  up  by  the  wedge,  taking  care  not  to  in- 
jure the  inner  bark.  The  bark  is  afterwards  di- 
vided unto  convenient  lengths,  and  then  is  flatten- 
ed, and  slightly  burned,  to  contract  the  pores- 
From  about  the  twenty-third  year,  the  tree  con- 
tinues, for  about  a  century  and  a  half,  to  yield 
good  cork  every  tenth  year.  The  best  sort  comes 
from  Portugal  and  Spain.  The  Spaniards  cover 
the  walls  of  their  houses  with  it,  like  wainscoting, 


DARNAWAY    CASTLE.  183 

which  not  only  makes  them  warm,  but  very  dry  ; 
and  the  peasantry  lay  broad  planks  of  it  at  their 
bed-sides,  as  we  do  carpels:  they  also  burn  it,  to 
make  what  painters  call  Spanish  black.  The 
Egyptians  formerly  made  coffins  of  cork,  lined 
with  resin,  which  preserved  the  bodies  for  a  long 
time. 

E.  Do  they  build  houses  with  oak,  mamma? 

Mrs.  E.  It  has  been  frequently  used  for  such 
purposes,  love.  In  Scotland,  the  roofs  are  gen- 
erally of  oak,  which,  before  the  trees  were  cut 
down,  almost  to  extermination,  in  the  lowland 
countries,  was  very  generally  in  use.  The  parlia- 
ment-house, in  Edinburgh,  has  a  fine  roof,  which 
is  principally  of  oak  ;  and  I  remember  how  much 
gratified  I  was  at  the  sight  of  the  application  of 
this  timber,  when  I  visited  the  Baronial  hall 
of  Darnaway  Castle.  It  was  erected  by  Ran- 
dolph, Earl  of  Moray — the  friend  of  Bruce  — 
when  he  was  Regent,  for  the  reception  of  the  nu- 
merous vassals,  who  attended  his  court.  After  all 
the  changes  it  must  have  undergone,  it  is  still  a 
noble  monument  of  ancient  magnificence,  and 
hospitality,  and  is  certainly  the  most  perfect  spe- 
cimen of  a  Baronial  hall  in  Scotland.  The  roof 
is  supported  by  couples  and  rafters  of  massy  oak, 
having  an  exceedingly  fine  appearance.  The 
length  of  the  hall  is  eighty-nine  feet,  its  breadth 
thirty-five  feet,  and  its  height  originally  about 
thirty  feet.  Here  stands  the  earl's  hospitable 
board  of  thick  oaken  plank,  resting  on  six  pillars, 
and  curiously  bordered  and  indented  ;  and  near 
it  is  his  oaken  chair,  on  which  are  coarsely  carv- 
ed his  arms,  and  the  emblems  of  his  office.  In 


184  THE    EIsIGMA, 

this  splendid  building,  when  he  came  with  his  nu- 
merous retinue,  for  the  purpose  of  hunting,  the 
ample  table  was  spread,  and  wine  and  wassail 
prevailed;  and,  at  night,  in  the  simplicity  of  that 
age,  the  floor  was  strewed  with  rushes,  and  there 
the  earl  and  his  comp  inions  reposed  together. 
The  oak  employed  in  our  men  of  war  has  led  to 
their  being  called  'the  wooden  walls  of  old  Eng- 
land ; '  and  in  memory  of  the  defence  they  have 
afforded,  the  freedom  of  cities  has  been  presented 
to  distinguished  individuals  in  highly-ornamented 
boxes  of  heart  of  oak. 

E.  And  is  that  all,  mamma,  that  you  and  pa- 
pa are  inclined  to  tell  us  1  —  I  see  ,you  are  just 
beginning  to  move. 

Mrs.  E.  It  is,  my  dear  ;  and  I  hope  you  will 
spend  the  remainder  of  the  day  as  pleasantly  as 
you  have  passed  a  part  of  the  morning. 


THE  ENIGMA 


'  I  HAVE  found  a  puzzle  for  you,  my  dears/ 
said  Mr.  Elwood  to  his  children,  as  he  entered 
the  room  where  they  were  seated  with  thier  mam- 
ma. 

'  Where,  where,  papa  V  was  the  immediate  in- 
quiry. 

'  It  is  here/  said  their  father,  as  he  laid  his 
right  hand  on  the  table. 

1  Then  it  cannot  be  alive,3  said  Emma. 

'  You  are  mistaken,  love/  replied  her  father, 


THE    SOLUTION.  185 

*  for  it  actually  has  life  ;  and  though  this  one  may 
never  do  any  good,  yet  to  some  of  its  ancestors 
we  owe  far  more  than  I  can  pretend  to  describe. 
In  addition  to  a  hundred  things  which  tend  to 
domestic  comfort,  it  has  done  much  for  the  fine 
arts,  assisting  the  production  of  the  sweetest 
sounds;  and  presenting  to  the  eye  scenes  arid 
persons  with  whom  imagination  only  was  pre« 
viously  acquainted.' 

Frederick  and  Emma  thought  for  some  time, 
but  confessed  they  knew  not  what  it  could  be  j 
when  Mr.  Elwood  showed  them  a  little  cone  he 
had  picked  up  in  the  shrubbery — the  fruit  of 
the  fir-tree. 

*  O  papa  ! '  said  Emma,  '  is  it  only  that?  It 
has  life,  however;  but  then  how  do  you  make 
out  the  hearing  and  seeing  ?  5 

'Quite  easily,  love/  replied  her  father;  'fir- 
wood,  so  soft  and  sonorous,  seems  to  have  been 
preferred  by  the  ancients,  as  well  as  the  moderns, 
to  every  other  kind,  for  the  construction  of  music- 
al instruments  ;  and  of  it  those  parts  of  the  harp, 
lute,  guitar,  harpsichord,  and  violin,  on  which 
their  tone  chiefly  depends,  are  still  made.  And 
then,  as  it  is  said  to  be  more  durable  even  than 
oak,  and  does  not  warp  or  shrink,  it  was  used  by 
painters  more  than  any  other,  before  the  use  of 
canvas  became  general.  Several  of  Raphael's 
pictures  are  painted  on  boards  of  this  wood.1 

'  Ah,  papa,  I  see  now  !  '  said  Emma.  { I  nev- 
er thought  you  would  be  fast  ;  but  will  you  sit 
down  and  tell  us  all  about  it,  as  you  did  about 
the  oak  'I ' 

'  I  have  not  the  slightest  objection,'  said  Mr. 
Elwood,  as  he  took  his  seat  in  his  easy  chair,  and 


186  FIK  CONE -—THE    SCOTCH    FIR. 

thus  proceeded  :  —  '  The  cone,  you  perceive,  i& 
a  tough,  woody  seed-vessel,  which  consists  of  the 
general  receptacle,  with  a;  number  of  hard  scales- 
attached  to  it.  When  the  fruit  is  matured,  these 
scales  lie  o?i  each  other,  like  the  tiles  of  a  house  ~r 
covering  the  seeds  or  nuts  so  completely,  as  to- 
appear  like  one  undivided  body.  In  this  state 
the  cone  hangs  on  the  tree  during  the  winter^ 
and  protects  what  is  enclosed;  but  as  soon  as  the 
warm  weather  comes,  the  scales  begia  to  shrink 
and  separate,  leaving  openings  for  the  ripe  seeds 
to  escape.  Sometimes  a  number  of  cones  hap- 
pen to  burst  at  the  same  moment,  and  then  the 
noise  can  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.' 

E.  Why,  papa,  any  one  just  under  the  trees 
would  be  startled,  and  not  know  whence  the 
sound  came,  and  he  would  look  iike — like  —  I 
should  think,  Alfred  Melville  did,  when  you  told 
him  to  touch  the  bell  at  St.  Paul's,  as  it  was  a- 
bout  to  strike  the  quarters,  and  went  off  bomb  — - 
bomb  —  bomb  ? 

Mr.  E.  Very  likely,  my  dear,  though  he 
laughed  heartily  directly  after.  —  In  the  Scrip* 
tures  we  often  read  of  the  fir-tree  ;  thus  the 
Psalmist  says,  c  As  for  the  stork,  the  fir-trees 
are  her  house;'  and  a  state  of  prosperity  is  indi- 
cated by  the  declaration  of  Ephraim,  '  I  am  like 
a  green  fir-tree.1  The  onty  native  one  is  the 
Scotch  fir,*  which  grows  plentifully  throughout 
the  Highlands.  When  planted  in  a  grove,  the 
trunk  becomes  tall  and  naked  ;  but  it  puts  forth 
numerous  branches  in  open,  sunny  ptaces.  It  is 
said  to  live  sometimes  to  the  age  of  four  hundred 
*  Pinus  gylvestris. 


THE    LARCH.  187 

years.  The  wood,  which  is  called  red  deal,  is 
very  smooth  and  light.  The  bark  will  tan  leath- 
er ;  and,  in  years  of  scarcity,  it  is  dried,  ground 
into  powder,  and  made  into  bread,  by  the  people 
in  the  North  of  Europe,  where  it  is  also  found. 
The  Highlanders  dig  up  the  roots  and  divide 
them  into  small  splinters,  to  bum  instead  of  can- 
dles ;  for  they  contain  a  gre-at  quantity  of  resin, 
and  easily  take  fire. 

Mrs.  E.  The  larch*  is  a  native  of  the  Alps 
and  Appennines,  where  it  sometimes  attains  the 
height  of  nearly  two  hundred  feet.  It,  however, 
thrives  well  in  Britain  ;  and  as  i*  g:ows  more  rap- 
idly, and  also  in  more  varied  soils,  than  the  com- 
mon pine,  it  is  perhaps  better  adapted  for  gener- 
al cultivation.  In  the  south,  it  attains  an  im- 
mense height;  some  single  beams  of  larch,  em- 
ployed in  palaces  and  public  buildings  of  Ven- 
ice, being  said  to  be  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  long.  I  have  seen  in  the  plantations  of  the 
Duke  of  Athol,  and  other  proprietors  in  Perth- 
shire, some  larches  at  least  a  hundred  feet  high. 
The  alternation  of  hill  and  dale  in  that  country  — 
exhibiting  scenes  of  uncultivated  magnificence 
contrasted  with  others  adorned  by  skilful  culti- 
vation —  with  the  general  opening  of  the  glens, 
and  exposure  of  the  surface  to  the  south  — afford 
the  larch  a  situation  something  like  its  native 
spot;  for  though  some  fast-growing  trees  have 
been  planted  at  the  same  time,  the  larch  overtops 
them  all :  and  in  summer,  arrayed  in  its  foliage, 
which  is  of  a  bright  clover-green,  it  looks  like  an 
obelisk  of  beryl.  The  larch  sheds  its  leaves,  and 

*  Pinus  Jarix. 


188  BRIDGES    OP    FIRS. 

is  probably  saved  by  that  means  from  those  keen 
blasts  of  the  early  spring  that  prove  destructive 
to  pines.  Thus  stripped,  it  is  an  ornamental 
tree,  for  the  trunk  is  generally  straight,  tapering 
gradually  to  a  point; 'the  branches,  which  are 
rather  small  in  proportion  to  the  tree,  taper  up  in 
the  form  of  a  perfect  cone  ;  and  the  whole  is  of  a 
lively  brown,  streaked  with  a  golden  color. 

Mr.  E.  Larch,  like  other  things,  has  its  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages.  Its  quality  seems 
not  to  depend  so  much  on  the  maturity  of  the 
tree,  and  the  slowness  of  its  growth,  as  that  of 
the  pine  ;  as  a  fishing-boat  built  of  larch  only  for- 
ty years  old,  has  been  found  to  last  three  times 
as  long  as  one  of  the  best  Norway  pine.  It  is 
not,  however,  so  buoyant,  or  so  elastic,  and  it  is 
more  apt  to  warp ;  but  it  is  more  tough  and  com- 
pact, and  it  approaches  nearly  to  being  proof 
against  water  and  fire  ;  so  that,  before  a  larch 
beam  was  ever  completely  charred  on  the  sur- 
face, one  of  pine,  or  of  dry  oak,  would  be  in  a 
blaze.  Still  it  is  heavier  to  transport,  and  hard- 
er to  work  ;  and  thus  the  introduction  of  this  most 
safe  ami  durable  timber  is  prevented.  The  Nor- 
way pine*  yields  the  white  deal,  the  wood  em- 
ployed for  so  many  useful  purposes ;  and  it  is 
from  the  sap  of  this  species  that  pitch,  tar,  com- 
mon resin,  and  turpentine,  are  procured. 

Mrs.  E.  Before  we  proceed,  I  will  read  you 
an  interesting  fact  from  the  Travels  of  Dr. 
Clarke  :  —  *  Before  our  arrival  at  Skale,'  he 
says,  '  the  noise  of  roaring  waters  again  announc- 
ed the  vicinity  of  a  cataract.  We  were  in  the 

*  Pin  as  abies. 


THE    CEDAR.  189 

midst  of  a  gloomy  forest ;  but  all  at  once  the  dark 
scenery  of  the  surrounding  woods  opened  upon 
such  a  view  of  the  Ljusna,  as  no  pen  can  de- 
scribe :  it  burst  upon  us  in  all  its  terrific  grandeur  ; 
the  whole  tide,  collected  from  all  its  tributary 
lakes  and  rivers,  throughout  its  course  from  the 
Norwegian  Alps,  in  one  vast  torrent,  clamorous- 
ly foaming  and  rushing  to  the  Bothnian  Gulf. 
A  bridge,  constructed  of  whole  trunks  of  fir- 
trees,  divested  only  of  their  bark,  stretched  across 
this  furious  torrent,  to  the  distance  of  one  hun- 
dred yards ;  presenting  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque objects  imaginable.  Above  this  bridge  the 
river  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad ;  and,  growing 
wider  as  it  recedes  from  the  eye  of  a  person  here 
placed,  it  is  distinctly  divided  by  promontories," 
projecting  from  its  sides  until  they  almost  meet, 
and  covered  with  tall  trees ;  thereby  forming 
straits  which  connect  it  with  other  seeming  lakes, 
equally  beautiful,  beyond  them,  and  which  ap- 
pear more  remotely  terminated  by  a  ridge  of 
mountains,  closing  the  prospect.  But,  in  this 
amazing  spectacle,  all  is  freshness  and  anima- 
tion ;  the  utmost  liveliness,  and  light,  and  ele- 
gance, exhibited  by  the  distant  sheets  of  water, 
combined  with  all  the  energy  and  tremendous 
force  of  a  cataract,  making  the  bridge  upon 
which  the  spectator  stands  shake  under  his  feet, 
as  if  it  were  rocked  by  an  earthquake.' 

F.  How  grand  —  how  beautiful,  mamma  ! 
Can  you  think  of  some  other  trees  ? 

Mrs.  E.  The  cedar*  is  a  large  and  majestic 
tree,  rising  to  the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  yards, 

*  Pinus  ceclrus. 
16 


190  THE    CEDAR. 

and  some  are  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  in  girth, 
It  is  a  beautiful  evergreen,  possessing  leaves 
something  like  those  of  the  rosemary,  and  distils 
a  kind  of  gum,  to  which  various  qualities  are  at- 
tributed. The  leaves  of  the  tree  are  said  to 
spread  upwards  into  beautiful  little  tufts ;  the 
whole  upper  surface  of  the  branch,  which  droops 
in  a  graceful  curve,  has  the  appearance  of  velvet, 
while  the  fruit  hangs  downward  :  it  grows  like 
cones  of  the  pine-tree,  but  it  is  longer,  harder, 
fuller,  and  not  easily  separated  from  the  stalk. 
The  wood  is  very  valuable  ;  it  possesses  a  strong 
aromatic  smell,  and  is  reputed  to  be  incorruptible. 
Of  this,  some  of  the  most  celebrated  erections  of 
antiquity  were  constructed.  Thus  we  read  that 
'  Solomon  raised  a  levy  of  thirty  thousand  men 
out  of  all  Israel ;  and  he  sent  them  to  Lebanon, 
ten  thousand  a  month,  by  courses  ;  and  he  had 
threescore  and  ten  thousand  that  bore  burthens, 
and  fourscore  thousand  hewers  in  the  mountains. 
And  he  covered  the  temple  with  beams  and 
boards  of  cedar.  And  he  built  chambers  against 
it,  which  rested  on  the  house,  with  timber  of  ce- 
dar. And  the  cedar  of  the  house  within  was 
carved  with  knops  and  flowers  :  all  was  cedar; 
there  was  not  a  stone  to  be  seen.'  But  the  for- 
est of  cedars,  once  so  famed  on  the  mountain  of 
Lebanon,  has  now  disappeared ;  only  a  few  trees 
remain  —  the  memorials  of  former  glory  and  of 
the  mutability  of  all  things  earthly. 

F.  Will  you  tell  us,  papa,  if  you  please,  what 
is  meant  when  the  cedar  is  spoken  of  in  the  Scrip- 
tures ? 

Mr.  E.  Sometimes,  my  dear,  it  illustrates  the 


THE  CEDAR THE  CYPRESS.      191 

power  of  God  ;  thus  it  is  said,  "  The  voice  of  the 
Lord  is  powerful :  the  voice  of  the  Lord  is  full  of 
majesty;  the  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  ce- 
dars; yea,  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  of  Le- 
banon. He  makes  them  also  to  skip  like  a  calf; 
Lebanon  and  Sirion  like  a  young  unicorn.'* 
How  sublime  is  this  !  At  the  voice  of  God,  the 
mighty  tree  which  braves  the  tempest  is  broken ; 
he  speaks  and  the  mountain  on  which  it  grows 
trembles,  then  leaps  like  the  young  of  the  herd 
when  buoyant  with  joy,  and  skips  and  bounds 
like  the  swiftest  of  creatures !  Isaiah  in  de- 
nouncing divine  judgments  on  the  mighty  of  the 
earth  in  their  pride  and  arrogance,  exclaims, 
4  The  day  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  shall  be  upon  all 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon  that  are  high  and  lifted 
up,  and  upon  all  the  oaks  of  Bashan.'t  And  the 
prosperity  of  the  pious  is  exhibited  by  an  allusion 
to  this  tree,  'The  righteous  shall  grow  as  the 
cedar  in  Lebanon.' 

E.  Oh,  dear  papa,  I  wish  we  knew  all  these 
things  as  well  as  you  !  How  much  more  pleased 
should  we  be  with  the  Bible  —  and  how  much 
more  should  we  know  about  it ! 

Mr.  E.  You  would,  my  dear  ;  but,  if  you  will 
ask  me  when  any  difficulties  arise,  I  shall  be  glad 
to  assist  in  removing  them.  Many  specimens  of 
the  cedar  of  Lebanon  are  mentioned  as  having 
reached  a  great  sizo  in  this  country.  In  1779, 
for  instance,  a  remarkable  one  was  blown  down 
at  Hendon  Place,  in  Middlesex.  It  was  seventy 
feet  high  ;  the  branches  covered  a  space  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  diameter  ;  the  trunk  was  sixteen 
*  Psalm  xxix.  4,  t  Isaiah  ii.  13. 


192  CYPRESS    OF    LOUISIANA^ 

feet  in  circumference  at  seven  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  twenty-one  feet  at  the  insertion  of 
the  great  branches,  twelve  feet  above  the  surface. 
The  average  circumference  of  the  ten  principal 
limbs,  or  branches,  was  twelve  feet.  Some  as- 
sert that  it  was  planted  by  the  hand  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  precise  spot  where  it  arose 
is  said  to  be  marked  by  a  handsome  cedar 
now  growing.  In  the  Hindoo  principality  of  the 
Kumaoon,.  the  cedars  are  of  an  enormous  size, 
Some  of  them  have  measured  twenty-seven  feet 
in  circumference  at  four  feet  from  the  ground,, 
and  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  height. 

Mrs.  E.  A  species  of  the  cypress  is  called  the 
white  cedar,*  and  grows  to  a  considerable  size. 
The  cypress  is  supposed  to  be  more  durable  than 
cedar  itself  The  doors  of  St.  Peter's  Church, 
at  Rome,  formed  of  this  material,  showed  no 
signs  of  decay,  when,  after  the  lapse  of  eleven 
hundred  years,  they  were  taken  down  to  be  re- 
placed by  gates  of  brass.  To  preserve  the  re?~ 
mains  of  their  heroes,  the  Athenians  buried  them 
in  coffins  of  cypress ;  and  the  chests  or  coffins  of 
the  Egyptian  mummies  are  usually  of  the  same 
wood.  Some  have  contended  that  of  this  the 
ark  of  Noah  was  made.  A  singular  species,  call- 
ed the  cypress  of  Louisiana,  grows  with  its  roots 
in  water,  and  is  principally  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi^  whose  shores  are  shaded  by  its 
magnificent  foliage.  The  circumference  of  the 
trunk  is  nearly  thirty  feet;  and  to  enable  it  to  re- 
sist the  floating  masses  of  ice,  which,  at  the 
breaking  up  of  the.  winter  season,  descend  m 

*  Gupressus  thyoides* 


MANUFACTURE    OF    TAR.  193 

great  quanties  from  the  northern  lakes,  several 
large  protuberances  act  as  buttresses,  evidently 
designed  to  protect  the  base ;  while,  upwards,  at 
the  height  of  six  feet,  the  trunk  is  sensibly  dimin- 
ished. The  heads  are  round  and  smooth,  hav- 
ing neither  leaves  nor  branches;  and,  therefore, 
cannot  be  considered  as  shoots.  They  are,  in 
fact,  ice-breakers. 

F.  That  reminds,  me,  mamma,  of  several 
things  you  have  mentioned.  How  delightful  it  is 
to  think  that  God  cares  for  the  cedar  ! 

Mr.  E.  It  is,  my  love ;  and  I  will  mention  to 
you  presently  another  remarkable  instance  of  his 
providence.  We  must,  however,  first  refer  to 
the  products  of  the  trees  we  have  mentioned. 
The  common  pine  yields  turpentine,  which  is  ob- 
tained by  cutting  into  the  living  tree:  tar  is  also 
procured  from  it,  and  '  the  process,'  says  Dr. 
Clarke,  'is  very  simple;  and,  as  we  have  often 
witnessed  it,  we  shall  now  describe  it,  from  a  tar- 
work  which  we  halted  to  inspect  upon  the  spot. 
The  situation  most  favorable  for  this  process  is 
in  a  forest  near  to  a  marsh  or  bog  ;  because  the 
roots  of  the  fir,  from  which  tar  is  principally 
extracted,  are  always  the  most  productive  in  such 
places.  A  conical  cavity  is  then  made  in  the 
ground  (generally  in  the  side  of  a  bank,  or  slop- 
ing hill),  and  the  roots  of  the  fir,  together  with 
logs  or  billets  of  the  same,  being  neatly  trussed 
into  a  stack  of  the  same  conical  shape,  are  let  in- 
to this  cavity.  The  whole  is  then  covered  with 
turf,  to  prevent  the  volatile  parts  from  being  dis- 
sipated, which,  by  means  of  a  heavy  mallet,  and 
a  wooden  stamper,  worked  separately  by  two, 
16* 


194 


RESIN  - —  TANNIN. 


men,  is  beaten  down,  and  rendered  as  firm  as 
possible  above  the  wood.  The  stack  of  billets  is 
then  kindled,  and  a  slow  combustion  of  the  fir 
takes  place,  without  flame,  as  in  making  char- 
coal. During  this  combustion,  the  tar  exudes ; 
and  a  cast-iron  pan  being  at  the  bottom  of  the 
funnel,  with  a  spout  which  projects  through  the 
side  of  the  bank,  barrels  are  placed  beneath  this 
spout,  to  collect  the  fluid  as  it  conies  away.  As 
fast  as  the  barrels  are  filled,  they  are  bunged,  and 
ready  for  immediate  exportation.  From  this  de- 
scription, it  will  be  evident  that  the  mode  of  ob- 
taining tar  is  by  a  kind  of  distillation ;  the  tur- 
pentine, melted  by  fire,  mixes  with  the  sap  and 
juices  of  the  fir,  while  the  wood  itself,  becoming 
charred,  is  converted  into  charcoal.  The  most 
curious  part  of  the  story  is,  that  this  simple  meth- 
od of  extracting  tar  is  precisely  that  which  is  de- 
scribed by  Theophrastus  and  Dioscorides ;  and 
there  is  not  the  smallest  difference  between  a  tar 
work  in  the  forests  of  Westro-Bothnia,  and  those 
of  ancient  Greece.  The  Greeks  made  stacks  of 
pine ;  and,  having  covered  them  with  turf,  they 
were  suffered  to-  burn  in  the  same  smothered 
manner ;  while  the  tar,  melting,  fell  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stack,  and  ran  out  by  a  small  channel 
cut  for  that  purpose.5 

Mrs.  E.  Turpentine  is  often  distilled  that  es- 
sential oil  may  be  produced,  and  what  is  left  is  a 
brownish  mass,  which  is  the  resin  of  commerce. 
The  bark  of  the  larch-tree  contains  also  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  bitter  called  tannin, 
which,  mixed  with  the  gluey  part  of  the  skins  of 
animals,  changes  that  into  a  substance  not  solu- 


FLOATING   OP    TIMBER.  195 

ble  in  water  ;  and  thus  it  is  useful  in  tanning  — 
the  process  of  changing  raw  hides  into  leather. 
But  papa  has  just  handed  me  a  volume  which  re- 
lates what  is  very  singular.  The  northern  slopes 
of  the  Alps,  and  some  of  the  mountains  of  Ger- 
many, abound  in  pines;  and  the  Rhine,  and  the 
Danube,  are  well  adapted  for  conveying  the  tim- 
ber to  the  lower  districts,  where  it  is  valuable. 
The  mode  of  doing  this  is  very  curious,  and  is 
thus  described  by  the  author  of  an  interesting 
volume  :  — '  A  little  below  Andernach,  the  little 
village  of  Namedy  appears  on  the  left  bank,  un- 
der a  wooded  mountain.  The  Rhine  here  forms 
a  little  bay,  where  the  pilots  are  accustomed  to 
unite  together  the  small  rafts  of  timber  floated 
down  the  tributary  rivers  into  the  Rhine,  and  to 
construct  enormous  floats,  which  are  navigated 
to  Dortrecht  (Dort.),  and  sold.  These  machines 
have  the  appearance  of  a  floating  village,  com- 
posed of  twelve  or  fifteen  little  wooden  huts,  on 
a  large  platform  of  oak  and  deal  timber.  They 
are  frequently  eight  or  nine  hundred  feet  long, 
and  sixty  or  seventy  in  breadth.  The  rowers 
and  workmen  sometimes  amount  to  seven  or 
eight  hundred,  superintended  by  pilots,  and  a 
proprietor,  whose  habitation  is  superior  in  size 
and  elegance  to  the  rest.  The  raft  is  composed 
of  several  layers  of  trees  placed  one  on  the  other, 
and  tied  together  :  a  large  raft  draws  not  less 
than  six  or  seven  feet  of  water.  Several  smaller 
ones  are  attached  to  it,  by  way  of  protection  ;  be- 
sides a  string  of  boats,  loaded  with  anchors  and 
cables,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of  sounding  the 
river,  and  going  on  shore.  The  domestic  econ- 


196  FLOATING    OF    TIMBER. 

omy  of  an  East  Indiaman  is  hardly  more  com- 
plete. Poultry,  pigs,  and  other  animals,  are  to 
be  found  on  board,  and  several  butchers  are  at- 
tached to  the  suit.  A  well-supplied  boiler  is  at 
work  night  and  day  in  the  kitchen  ;  the  dinner- 
hour  is  announced  by  a  basket  stuck  on  a  pole, 
at  which  signal  the  pilot  gives  the  word  of  com- 
mand, and  the  workmen  run  from  all  quarters  to 
receive  their  messes.  The  consumption  of  pro- 
visions in  the  voyages  to  Holland  is  almost  incred- 
ible, sometimes  amounting  to  forty  or  fifty  thou- 
sand pounds  of  bread,  eighteen  or  twenty  thou- 
sand pounds  of  fresh,  besides  a  quantity  of  salted 
meat,  and  butter,  vegetables,  &c.,  in  proportion. 
The  expenses  are  so  great  that  a  capital  of  3  or 
400,000  florins  (about  $150,000)  is  considered 
necessary  to  undertake  a  raft.  Their  naviga- 
tion is  a  matter  of  considerable  skill,  owing  to 
the  abrupt  windings,  the  rocks,  and  shallows  of 
the  river;  and,  some  years  ago,  the  secret  was 
thought  to  be  monopolized  by  a  boatman  of  Ru- 
desheim,  and  his  son.' 

Mr.  E.  I  remember  another  instance.  The 
following  passage  from  Planche's  '  Descent  of 
the  Danube/  gives  a  description  of  the  method 
of  floating  timber  on  a  branch  of  that  river ;  and 
the  practice  appears  to  be  common  in  Germany  : 
'  At  the  mouth  of  the  Erlaf,  is  a  rechen,  or  grate, 
where  the  wood  collects  that  is  floated  down  this 
stream  from  the  forests  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Maria-Zell,  in  the  Steyermark,  near  which  it  . 
takes  its  rise.  It  is  customary  in  Geimanyto 
place  one  of  these  gratings  at  the  mouth  of  any 
tributary  stream,  or  in  the  bed  of  any  river  where 


GREENLAND.  197 

a  line  of  demarcation  is  drawn  naturally  or  ar- 
tificially between  two  kingdoms,  two  provinces, 
or  even  two  parishes  ;  so  that  the  branches  and 
trunks  of  trees  blown  down  by  high  winds,  and 
swept  away  by  inundations  into  the  current,  should 
not  be  carried  beyond  the  frontiers,  or  bounda- 
ries, of  the  state  or  property  to  which  they  be- 
long, and  which  derives  from  them  no  inconsid- 
erable portion  of  its  revenue. 

*  The  timber,  also,  regularly  felled  by  the  wood- 
cutters, is  thrown  thus  carelessly  on  the  mountain 
streams  of  Germany,  and  floats  down  to  the  re- 
chen,  or  grate,  where  it  is  afterwards  collected 
by  its  owners,  who  are  thus  saved  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  land-carriage ;  and  the  drifting  prop- 
erty is  protected  from  plunder  by  the  severity  of 
the  laws  relating  to  it.' 

F.  When  will  you  tell  us,  papa,  what  you  men- 
tioned about  Providence  ? 

Mr.  E.  Now,  my  dear.  Greenland  is  the  most 
northern  tract  of  land  lying  between  Europe  and 
America.  All  its  hills,  except  where  the  rocks 
are  smooth  and  perpendicular,  are  covered  with 
eternal  ice  and  snow,  which  have  also,  in  the 
course  of  time,  filled  all  the  elevated  plains,  and 
many  valleys.  To  give  you  an  idea  of  the  cold 
there,  I  will  read  you  an  extract  from  the  jour- 
nal of  Egede,  the  missionary.  The  date  is  Jan- 
uary 7,  1738.  '  The  ice  and  hoar-frost  reach 
through  the  chimney  to  the  stove's  mouth,  with- 
out being  thawed  by  the  fire  in  the  day  time. 
Over  the  chimney  is  an  arch  of  frost,  with  little 
holes,  through  which  the  smoke  discharges  itself. 
The  doors  and  walls  are  as  if  they  were  plastered 


198  GREENLAND. 

over  with  frost,  and,  which  is  hardly  credible, 
beds  are  often  frozen  to  the  bedstead.  The  lin- 
en is  frozen  in  the  drawers.  The  upper  eider- 
down bed,  and  the  pillows  are  quite  stiff  with 
frost,  an  inch  thick,  from  the  breath.  The  flesh 
barrels  must  be  hewn  in  pieces  to  get  out  the 
meat ;  when  it  is  thawed  in  snow-water,  and  set 
over  the  fire,  the  outside  is  boiled  sufficiently,  be- 
fore the  inside  can  be  pierced  with  a  knife.' 

E.  Oh,  dear  papa,  I  hope  they  have  good  large 
fires  in  that  cold  country  ! 

Mr.  E.  No  large  timber  grows  in  Greenland. 

E.  Poor  creatures !  what  can  they  do  for  fires 
and  houses? 

Mr.  E.  That  is  a  question  which  I  expected, 
Emma  ;  and  I  am  glad  I  can  answer  it  to  your 
satisfaction.  Though  God  has  denied  this  frigid 
rocky  region  the  growth  of  trees,  he  has  bid  the 
streams  of  the  ocean  to  convey  to  its  shores  a 
great  quantity  of  wood,  part  without  ice,  but  most 
part  with  it,  and  to  lodge  itself  betwen  the  islands. 
Thus  there  is  wood  to  burn,  and  also  timber  to 
roof  the  houses  of  the  Greenlanders,  to  erect  their 
tents,  to  build  their  boats,  and  to  shaft  their  ar- 
rows, by  which  they  must  procure  their  mainte- 
nance, clothing  and  train-oil,  for  warmth,  light, 
and  cooking.  Among  this  wood,  are  great  trees 
of  various  sorts,  torn  up  by  the  roots.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  they  come  from  Asiatic  Tar- 
tary  or  Siberia,  where  the  wild  mountain  torrents, 
swollen  by  the  rains  and  floods,  carry  away  whole 
pieces  of  land  with  the  large  trees  upon  them, 
which  are  plunged  into  the  great  rivers,  and  then 
carried  out  to  sea.  From  thence  they  are  driven 


GOODNESS    OF   GOD. MOUNT    .ETNA.       199 

with  the  floating  ice,  by  the  easterly  current,  that 
comes  by  Spitsbergen,  and  conducted  between 
Jcelarid  and  Greenland  to  the  east  side,  round 
Statenhook,  into  Davis's  Straits.  How  does  this 
illustrate  the  psalmist's  saying:  '  Stormy  wind, 
fulfilling  his  word.' 

F.  I  am  glad  you  thought  of  that  story,  papa; 
it  is  so  interesting  —  so  wonderful ! 

Mr.  E.  It  is,  my  dear.  Thus  God,  who  cares 
for  the  tree  of  which  you  heard,  cares  for  the 
Greenlanders. 


THE  THREE  REGIONS. 

'  OUR  ride  to-day/  said  Mrs.  Elwood, '  has 
presented  us  with  a  variety  of  objects  ;  and  I  was 
particularly  struck  by  the  contrast  between  the 
spots  that  were  fertile  and  those  that  were  almost 
unproductive.  What  a  change,  too,  may  we  ob- 
serve in  the  air  !  The  morning  so  bright  and 
promising,  has  been  succeeded  by  a  dull  and  chil- 
ly evening.' 

'  Your  remark,  my  dear/  said  Mr.  Elwood, 
'  has  wafted  my  thought*,  in  a  moment,  to  a  far 
distant  spot ;  and  I  have  been  musing  on  the  pe- 
culiar circumstances  of  ^Etna,  the  far-famed  burn- 
ing mountain  of  Sicily.  It  is  divided  into  three 
districts,  or  regions,  each  having  its  characteris- 
tic differences.  They  have  distinct  climates,  cor- 
responding with  the  gradations  of  ascent,  and  di- 
vided naturally  into  the  torrid,  the  temperate,  and 


200  MOUNT    jETNA. 

the  frigid.  The  mountain,  however,  has  been 
usually  divided  according  to  other  differences  ; 
and  thus  we  have  described  to  us  the  fertile  re- 
gion, the  woody  region,  and  the  barren  region.' 

'  How  I  should  like  to  see  them  !  '  said  Emma  ; 
'  would  not  you,  Frederick  dear  ?  ' 

1 1  think  I  should,  Emma,'  said  Frederick  : 
*  but  papa  is  sometimes  so  kind  as  to  let  us  hear 
about  curious  things  which  we  are  not  likely  to 
see  ;  and  perhaps  he  will  now.' 

Mr.  E.  The  fertile  region  extends,  my  dears, 
fifteen  miles  from  the  city  of  Catania,  whence 
the  traveller  usually  begins  his  journey,  and  from 
which  part  the  ascent  commences.  The  surface 
of  this  region  is  reckoned  at  upwards  of  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty  square  leagues.  It  abounds  in 
pasture-grounds,orchards,  and  fruit-trees,  of  great 
and  rich  variety ;  and  there  the  vine  especially 
flourishes.  The  next  advance  is  to  the  woody 
region,  which  begins  about  three  miles  above  the 
latter  place,  and  extends  upwards  of  eight  or  ten 
miles.  The  vegetation  of  this  part  is  said  to  de- 
crease as  you  advance,  the  trees  gradually  dimin- 
ishing in  size,  till  they  become  comparatively 
dwarfish  and  insignificant.  This  region  is  esti- 
mated at  from  seventy  to  eighty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, with  a  surface  of  about  forty  or  fifty 
square  leagues,  forming  a  girdle  round  the  moun- 
tain of  vivid  green,  composed  of  oaks,  beeches, 
and  other  trees,  in  a  soil  of  vegetable  earth.  The 
climate  is  here  most  agreeably  mild,  the  air  is 
cool  and  reviving,  and  every  breeze  is  filled  with 
delicious  odors.  It  reminds  us  of  the  scene  in  the 


SNOW    GROTTO THE    DESERT    REGION.       201 

Antediluvian  world,  which  Montgomery  has  so 
beautifully  described : 

1  So  pure  !  so  fresh  !  —  tho  woods,  the  sky,  the  air !  — 
It  seemed  a  place  where  angels  might  repair, 
And  tune  their  harps,  amidst  these  tranquil  shades, 
To  morning  songs,  and  moonlight  serenades.' 

J5.  It  must,  indeed,  be  beautiful,  papa;  is  any 
thing  else  interesting  ? 

Mr.  E.  Yes :  there  is  a  curious  snow  grotto. 
The  snow  which  is  drifted  from  the  higher  parts 
of  the  mountain,  is  stopped,  by  a  wall  erected 
for  the  purpose,  a  little  above  the  grotto,  whence 
it  is  thrown  down  by  two  openings,  and  is  pro- 
tected from  the  heat  of  summer  by  a  thick  crust 
of  lava,  which  forms  a  natural  ceiling  to  the  cave. 
Snow  is  exported  from  this  receptacle  in  large 
bags,  into  which  it  is  put,  after  being  wrapped  in 
leaves ;  and,  thus  preserved,  it  has  the  appear- 
ance of  transparent  crystal.  The  knights  of 
Malta  hire  this,  and  other  grottos  of  a  similar  de- 
scription, for  the  use  of  their  island ;  hence  snow 
becomes  an  important  article  of  trade,  the  nature 
of  the  climate  always  occasioning  a  large  demand. 
As  the  desert  region  is%pproached,  vegetation 
becomes  thin  and  small.  Wintry  blasts  now 
sweep  along  a  wild  and  desert  path.  Here  and 
there,  indeed,  clumps  of  trees  and  tufts  of  herb- 
age are  to  be  seen  ;  but  even  these  become  more 
and  more  scarce,  till  they  entirely  disappear  ;  and 
the  traveller  must  encounter  a  space,  from  eight 
to  ten  miles  in  extent,  overspread  with  a  flat  ex- 
panse of  snow  and  ice,  and  abounding  in  danger- 
ous torrents  of  melted  snow.  Beyond  this,  the 
great  crater  rises  ;  and  at  the  highest  summit  of 
17 


202  REMARKABLE    CHESTNUT-TREE. 

the  mountain,  there  is,  according  to  Brydone,  an 
ample  recompense  for  toil  and  danger,  in  the  most 
wonderful  and  sublime  sight  in  nature. 

Mrs.  E.  Is  there  not,  in  the  woody  region,  a 
remarkable  chestnut-tree  ? 

Mr.  E.  There  is,  my  dear.  The  eastern  side 
of  that  part  abounds  particularly  in  chestnut-trees 
of  the  largest  dimensions,  which  become  a  very 
profitable  article  of  trade,  by  furnishing  hoops  for 
casks  ;  on  which  account,  the  inhabitants  attend 
very  carefully  to  their  cultivation.  One  tree  has 
long  been  celebrated  above  the  rest,  for  its  extra- 
ordinary size,  and  is  called  the  chestnut-tree  of  a 
hundred  horse,  from  its  supposed  capacity  of  con- 
taining that  number ;  but  particularly  from  the 
fabulous  tradition  that  the  Q,ueen  of  Spain  once 
found  shelter,  with  a  hundred  attendants,  under 
this  tree.  Carrera  says  that  there  is  wood  enough 
in  it  to  build  a  large  palace.  At  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  it  measures  a  hundred  and  ninety-six 
feet ;  and  its  height  and  size  would  have  been 
like  its  dimensions,  but  for  the  practice  of  lop- 
ping off  its  branches  for  fuel.  Some  travellers 
have  dug  about  it,  to  fee  if  it  were  a  cluster  of 
several  trees,  or  only  one  ;  and  they  have  found 
that,  although  divided,  at  or  near  the  surface,  in- 
to five  branches,  they  are  all  united  in  one  root. 
From  the  main  stems,  a  multitude  of  branches 
spring,  each  of  prodigious  size,  and  having  the 
peculiarity  of  no  bark  on  the  inside.  A  hut  is 
built  in  the  hollow  of  the  trunk,  to  accommodate 
those  who  are  engaged  in  collecting  and  preserv- 
ing the  fruit  The  use  of  ovens  for  drying 
the  nuts,  is  thought  to  account  for  the  want  of 


CHESTNUT    OF    TOTWORTH.  203 

bark  on  the  inner  side  of  the  branches.  Other 
vegetable  wonders  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  ; 
and  particularly  one,  with  an  undivided  trunk, 
measuring  fifty-seven  feet,  at  the  height  of  fifteen 
feet  ftom  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Mrs.  E.  It  is,  indeed,  a  most  extraordinary 
spot.  But  the  chestnut  thrives  well  in  most  parts 
of  Britain.  Several  large  trees  have  been  de- 
scribed to  us.  Fitz-Stephen,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II,  speaks  of  an  extensive  forest 
of  chestnuts,  which  sheltered  the  north  side  of 
London.  A  tree  of  this  kind,  at  Totworth,  in 
Gloucestershire,  is  said  to  have  stood  there  in 
the  year  1150;  and  in  the  same  county  there  was 
another,  in  the  hollow  of  which  there  was  a 
'  pretty  wainscoted  room,  enlightened  with  win- 
dows and  furnished  with  seats/  The  former 
has  been  called,  for  ages,  'the  great  chestnut  of 
Totworth  ;  '  it  measures  fifty-two  feet  round,  and 
still  continues  to  bear  fruit. 

F.  What  a  fine  horse-chestnut-tree  that  is,  pa- 
pa, near  the  park  gate  !  Its  bunches  of  large 
white  flowers  are  very  beautiful.  How  many  there 
were  this  year  !  I  was  quite  sorry  when  they 
were  gone.  Is  not  this  a  different  tree  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is,  my  dear.  The  horse-chestnut  is 
a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  Asia ;  and  was 
brought  to  Europe  about  the  year  1500.  It  af- 
fords a  fine  shade  while  the  leaves  are  on;  but 
as  they  begin  to  fall  off  in  July,  it  soon  loses  its 
beauty.  Its  timber  is  but  of  little  value.  The 
deer  in  the  park  eat  its  nuts  with  avidity.  The 
Turks,  it  is  said,  grind  them,  and  mix  them  with 
the  food  of  their  horses.  The  bark  has  been 


204  THE    WALNUT-TREE. 

employed,  with  some  success  in  dyeing  yellow  ; 
and  the  prickly  husks  are  used  in  tanning. 

E.    I  am  very  fond  of  walnuts,  papa :  I  hope 
we  shall  soon  have  a  good  many. 

Mr.  E.  The  fruit  of  the  walnut-tree*  is  very 
agreeable  :  when  green,  the  nuts  make  a  pleas- 
ant and  wholesome  pickle ;  the  oil  is  used  for  del- 
icate colors  in  painting,  for  smoothing  and  polish- 
ing wood- work,  and  sometimes  for  burning  in 
lamps.  A  dye  is  also  obtained  from  the  leaves, 
and  recent  husks  in  their  green  state.  The  form 
which  the  branches  wear  is  generally  beautiful. 
In  May,  the  warm  hue  of  its  foliage  makes  a 
pleasing  contrast  with  that  of  other  trees  ;  but  its 
leaves  open  late,  and  fall  early. 

F.  From  whence  did  we  obtain  the  walnut- 
tree? 

Mrs.  E.  It  is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Europe,  perhaps  of  Asia.  It  grows  in  various 
parts  of  the  earth  ;  in  England  it  thrives  well ; 
and  wherever  it  flourishes  it  is  valuable,  It  ad- 
vances rapidly,  till  it  attains  a  considerable  size, 
and  is  valuable  as  timber.  Its  principal  use,  how- 
ever, is  for  the  stocks  of  fire-arms.  The  demand 
for  these  during  the  late  war,  thinned  England 
of  its  walnut-trees.  At  that  time,  the  wood  was 
in  so  much  request  that  a  fine  tree  has  often  been 
sold  for  several  hundred  pounds.  Oh,  what  an 
evil  is  war  !  Its  path  is  that  of  misery  and  death ; 
yet  many  works  in  the  hands  of  the  young,  were 
written  under  the  power  of  a  ferocious  depravi- 
ty. They  teach  the  boy  to  hate  or  to  despise  ev- 
ery nation  but  his  own;  they  pourtray  war  as 

*  Juglans  rogia. 


EVIL    OP   WAR THE    MAHOGANY-TREE.      205 

the  theatre  of  glory  ;  they  tell  him  to  rejoice  in 
the  woes  poured  out  on  the  people  of  other  lands  ; 
and  they  often  fill  him  with  ambition  to  wear  the 
blood-stained  laurels  of  victory,  by  a  work  of  de- 
struction surpassing  that  which  many  have  ac- 
complished I  am  thankful,  Frederick,  that  your 
reading  is  directed,  not  only  by  affection,  but  by 
sound  judgment :  I  trust  that  you  will,  therefore, 
see  things  as  they  are,  and  that  you  will  imbibe 
and  adorn  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  of  peace. 

F.  I  hope  so  too,  mamma.  I  remember  you  once 
showed  me  the  portrait  of  Howard,  and  wished 
that  I  should  be  like  him.  That  would  indeed 
be  delightful ! 

Mr.  E.  It  would,  my  dear. 

1  How  beauteous  are  the  feet  of  those  who  bear 
Mercy  to  man,  glad  tidings  to  despair  ! 
Far  from  the  mountain's  top  they  lovelier  seem 
Than  moonlight  dews,  or  morning's  rosy  beam  j 
Sweeter  the  voice  than  spell  or  hymning  sphere — 
And  listening  angels  hush  their  harps  to  hear  ! ' 

From  this  digression,  which  I  thank  mamma 
for  making,  we  may  now  return  to  remark,  that 
the  walnut  was  once  in  England  '  the  cabinet-ma- 
ker's tree,'  and  that  to  his  purposes  it  was  well 
adapted.  In  many  parts  of  the  continent,  where 
the  expense  of  carriage  is  great,  it  is  still  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture  ;  but 
with  us  it  has  been  generally  superseded  by  a 
wood  with  which  you  are  all  familiar. 

E.  Oh,  that  is  mahogany,  papa! 

Mr.  E.  It  is.  The  seeds  of  the  common  one,* 
which  are  very  light,  are  often  blown  into  the 

*  Swietenia  mahagoni. 

17* 


206  FIRST    USE    OF    MAHOGANY. 

chinks  of  rocks,  where  they  take  root,  and  at 
length  produce  trees  of  considerable  size  ;  and 
the  wood  of  those  that  spring  in  this  manner, 
from  exposed  situations,  is  harder  than  what  grows 
in  other  places.  The  mahogany  tree  is  singular- 
ly majestic.  In  the  rich  valleys  among  the  mounr 
tains  of  Cuba,  and  in  those  that  open  on  the  Bay 
of  Honduras,  it  expands  into  a  trunk  so  gigantic 
divides  into  such  massy  arms,  and  throws  the 
shade  of  its  shining  green  leaves,  spotted  with 
tufts  of  pearly  flowers,  so  far  around,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine  a  production  of  the  vegetable 
world  combining  so  fully  the  qualities  of  elegance 
and  strength,  as  to  appear  at  once  both  beautiful 
and  sublime.  It  is  probably  two  hundred  years 
arriving  at  maturity.  A  single  log  of  this  wood, 
imported  at  Liverpool,  weighed  nearly  seven  tons; 
and,  a  short  time  ago,  Messrs.  Broadwood,  who 
made  your  piano-forte  Emma,  gave  the  large  sum 
of  three  thousand  pounds  for  three  logs  of  mahog- 
any, which  were  the  produce  of  one  tree. 

Mrs.  E.  The  employment  of  this  wood  arose 
from  accident.  About  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century  it  was  first  brought  to  England,  when  a 
few  planks  were  sent  to  Dr.  Gibbons,  of  London, 
by  his  brother,  a  West  Indian  captain.  As  the 
doctor  was  building  a  house,  he  gave  the  planks 
to  the  workmen,  who  rejected  them,  as  being  too 
hard  ;  some  was  also  given  to  a  cabinet-maker 
to  make  a  candle-box,  and  he  urged  the  same  ob- 
jection. But  when  it  was  finished,  it  was  far 
brighter  than  the  other  furniture,  and  became  an 
object  of  great  curiosity.  Dr.  Gibbons  had  there- 
fore, a  bureau  made  of  it.  and  the  Duchess  of 


VENEERS.  207 

Buckingham  another  ;  the  despised  mahogany 
was  thus'taken  into  favor,  and  its  use  is  now  gen- 
eral. 

E.  Papa,  very  thin  mahogany  is  used  ;  for, 
when  a  piece  was  broken  off  the  table  the  other 
day,  I  saw  it  was  not  much  thicker  than  stout  pa- 
per. 

Mr.  E.  Once  the  solid  wood  was  preferred, 
but  now  this,  as  well  as  others,  is  cut  into  thin 
pieces,  called  veneers ;  and  thus  the  purpose  is 
answered  at  far  less  cost.  At  first,  the  veneers 
were  cut  by  hand  ;  but  latterly  this  has  been  done 
by  machinery.  I  have  seen  one  of  these  mills 
driven  by  steam,  and  consisting  of  a  number  of 
circular  saws,  the  largest  of  which  is  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter.  The  teeth  of  the  saws  are  rath- 
er wide,  that  they  may  not  be  clogged  with  the 
dust ;  and  they  revolve  at  a  great  rate.  The  log 
of  timber  is  fastened  in  a  frame,  and  placed  flat 
in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  to  be  cut.  The 
frame  is  then  carried  steadily  forward  on  its  bed  ; 
and  the  saw  cuts,  for  coarse  work,  about  one  foot 
of  length  in  four  seconds.  When  the  wood  is 
harder,  or  of  more  value ,  the  motion  is  slower, 
but  the  quantity  that  may  be  produced  is  almost 
incredible.  Cabinet  makers,  who  wish  to  make 
goods  very  cheap,  often  have  fifteen  or  sixteen 
veneers  out  of  an  inch  of  wood ;  but  others  think 
eight  or  nine  thicknesses  enough.  A  log  fifteen 
feet  long,  and  three  feet  each  in  other  ways,  would 
spread  out,  according  to  the  former  mode,  to  the 
extent  of  about  an  acre  and  three  quarters ;  and 
when  cut  according  to  the  latter,  it  would  cover 
nearly  an  acre. 


208  LAW   OF    NATURE. 

E.  O  papa,  what  a  number  of  chairs,  and  ta- 
bles, and  pianos,  that  quantity  would  cover  !  And 
then  what  a  deal  of  money  it  must  save,  when 
they  make  so  little  go  a  great  way  ! 

Mrs.  E.  Our  houses  are  greatly  indebted  to- 
this  wood  for  their  present  appearance.  Much 
of  the  furniture  of  former  times  was  mean  and 
ill-fashioned.  But  the  huge  oak  tables  and  Wind- 
sor chairs  made  of  elm,  are  now  displaced  by 
others  of  better  form,  and  more  graceful  materi- 
als; and  hence  many  advantages  arise.  The 
East  India  mahogany*  is  a  very  large  tree.  It 
rises  to  a  great  height,  with  a  straight  trunk  which, 
towards  the  upper  part,  throws  out  many  branch- 
es. The  wood  is  of  a  dull  red  color,  and  not  so 
beautiful  as  common  mahogany,  but  much  hard- 
er, heavier,  and  more  durable.  The  natives  of 
India  consider  it  the  most  lasting  timber  that  their 
country  produces,  and  employ  it  in  their  temples, 
and  wherever  they  want  strength  and  durability. 

F.  I  wonder,  papa,  how  high  a  tree  could  grow. 
Mr.  E.  There  is  a  law  of  nature,  my  dear,  by 

which  the  growth  of  trees  is  limited.  That  a  lar- 
ger body  may  have  proportionate  strength  to  a 
smaller,  it  must  be  made  still  thicker  and  more 
clumsy  than  it  is  made  longer;  and,  beyond  a 
certain  point,  no  proportions  whatever  will  keep 
it  together,  in  opposition  merely  to  the  force  of 
its  own  weight.  We  have,  therefore,  no  trees 
reaching  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  even  when 
perfectly  perpendicular,  and  sheltered  in  forests 
which  have  been  undisturbed  from  the  beginning 

*  Febrifuga. 


LAW    OF    NATURE.  209 

of  time  ;  and  oblique  or  horizontal  branches  are 
kept  within  very  narrow  limits  by  the  great 
strength  required  to  support  them. 

Mrs.  E.  To  explain  this  law  more  fully,  think 
how  massive  are  the  limbs  of  the  ox,  the  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros,  compared  with  the  slender  forms 
of  the  greyhound,  the  stag,  and  the  antelope. 
And  unless  the  bones  were  made  of  stronger  ma- 
terial than  now,  a  creature  much  larger  than  the 
elephant  would  fall  to  pieces  from  inward  weak- 
ness. The  whale  is  the  largest  of  animals,  but 
it  feels  not  its  mighty  weight,  because  it  is  con- 
jtantly  supported  by  the  ocean.  The  giants  of 
tie  heathen  mythology  could  not  have  existed  on 
«arth,  for  the  same  reason ;  although  in  the  moon 
vhere  weight  or  gravity  is  less,  because  of  her 
smaller  size,  such  beings  might  live.  Granite, 
vliich  is  the  strongest  of  rock,  yields  to  the  same 
'av  ;  and  if  any  rock  or  cliff  m6re  remarkable 
;han  now  remains  on  earth  could  be  produced  a- 
£un,  the  monstrosity  would  soon  be  corrected. 
Bat,  on  the  lunar  orb,  mountains  of  granite  might 
b?  many  times  higher  than  on  earth  ;  and  the 
oDservations  of  astronomers  proves  that  they  ac- 
tially  are  so.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that 
a  gradation  of  form  is  perceptible  from  granite 
mountains  down  to  those  of  chalk,  gravel,  and 
sand ;  and  the  geologist  can  generally  tell  the 
substance  of  which  a  hill  is  composed  by  the  pe- 
culiarities of  its  shape.  While,  then,  others  over- 
look such  facts,  let  us  regard  and  trace  them 


-to  the  will 


And  arbitration  wise  of  the  Supreme. 

Did  not  his  eye  rule  all  things 

-•    •  or  could  chance 

Find  place  in  his  dominion,  or  dispose 
One  lawless  particle  to  thwart  his  plan ; 


210  ALTITUDES. 

Then  God  might  bo  surprised,  and  unforeseen 
Conlingonce  might  alarm  him,  and  disturb 
The  smooth  and  equal  course  of  his  affairs,' 

—  But,  it  is  time  that  we  should  engage  in  devo- 
tional exercises,  for  which  this  thought  may  tend 
to  prepare  us. 


ALTITUDES. 

'  IN  a  recent  conversation,  my  dears/  said  Mr. 
El  wood, f  a  curious  fact  was  stated  as  to  the  height 
of  mountains,  and  another  occurred  to  me  afteh 
wards,  which  I  will  now  mention.  A  little  ob- 
servation and  experience  will  enable  a  travelle* 
to  conjecture  the*probable  elevation  of  those  he 
has  ascended,  or  the  height  above  the  sea  of  tiie 
valleys  which  he  traverses.  For  instance,  Ue 
loftiest  summits,  and  the  most  pointed  tops  of  rock 
and  ice,  are  not  too  elevated  for  the  bouquetii, 
The  chamois  does  not  ascend  so  high,  but  he 
never  enters  the  plains;  he  is  only  to  be  seen  on 
very  lofty  ridges  in  the  vicinity  of  the  snow-Jim. 
The  marmot  and  white  hare  frequent  the  slopes 
of  mountains  which  are  beneath  the  favorite 
haunts  of  this  fleet  and  buoyant  creature.  The 
fox  does  not  like  to  rise  higher  than  where  he 
can  find  brakes  and  thickets  for  concealment. 
The  vulture  and  the  eagle  share  the  domains  of 
the  chamois,  the  ptarmigan  those  of  the  mormot; 
and,  while  the  grouse  and  the  heathcock  aspire 
no  higher  than  the  pine-forests,  the  pheasant  is 


VARIOUS    PRODUCTIONS.  211 

found  in  great  abundance  in  almost  all  the 
<woody  heights  which  rise  immediately  above  the 
valleys. 

'  The  traveller  has  another  guide  in  the  vegeta- 
ble products  of  the  scene  of  his  journeys.  No 
oaks  are  seen  at  a  greater  height  than  about 
5,300  feet.  The  chestnut  seldom  ascends  above 
2,400  :  the  vine  not  more  than  1,700.  The  or 
ange  and  olive  will  only  grow  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alps,  and  principally  near  the  coast.  The  birch, 
and  the  pitch-pine  will  flourish  at  an  elevation  of 
4,500  feet ;  but  the  beech  stops  at  about  4,000. 
Of  fruit-trees,  the  cherry  may  be  cultivated  as 
high  as  any  —  at  3,000  feet.  The  alder  ranges 
to  6,000 ;  the  rhododendron  as  high.  The  dwarf 
willow  can  bear  the  greatest  altitude.  Barley 
and  oats  will  sometimes  grow  at  upwards  of  5,000 
feet.  Some  of  the  finest  pasturages  are  found  at 
7,000 ;  and  there  are  many  herbaceous  plants  and 
grasses  which  can  bear  the  elevation  of  7,600 
feet.' 

E.  That  is  very  curious,  papa ;  but  do  you 
know  you  have  just  mentioned  several  trees  which 
you  and  mamma  have  not  yet  described?  Is 
there  anything  curious  about  the  beech  ?  * 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  valuable  tree,  my  love,  which, 
when  sheltered,  grows  to  a  great  height.  The 
poet  Virgil  chose  it  for  a  shade  ;  for  no  tree  forms 
so  complete  a  roof.  Its  head,  however,  is  not 
beautiful,  and  its  branches  have  neither  the  ele- 
gance of  the  ash,  nor  the  firmness  of  the  oak. 
The  hue  of  the  bark  is  an  agreeable  olive ;  and 
its  trunk,  often  studded  with  bold  knots,  is  gen- 

*Fagua  sylvatica. 


212  THE    BEECH THE    BIRCH. 

erally  picturesque.  Its  tints,  in  autumn,  are  ve- 
ry beautiful.  The  close  texture  of  the  wood 
adapts  it  to  many  purposes.  The  small  timber 
makes  excellent  charcoal  :  the  mast,  or  fruit,  is 
eaten  by  hogs ;  and  the  poor  in  Silesia  extract 
from  it  an  oil,  which 'they  use  instead  of  butter. 
The  nut  is  sometimes  burnt  to  make  an  infusion 
something  like  coffee.  The  finest  beech  on  rec- 
ord appears  to  be  that  in  Woburn  park,  situat- 
ed on  a  rising  ground  south  of  the  abbey,  in  a 
fine  grove  of  that  species.  The  height  of  this 
tree,  at  present,  is  one  hundred  feet.  It  has  a 
clear  and  nearly  equally  cylindrical  stem,fifty  feet 
high ;  and  the  top,  which  is,  in  every  respect,  of 
the  most  graceful  proportions,  is  of  the  same  ele- 
vation. The  solid  contents  are  four  hundred 
feet. 

Mrs.  E.  The  birch,*  which  papa  also  men- 
tioned, is  a  graceful  tree,  diffusing  an  agreeable 
fragrance.  When  it  arrives  at  a  considerable 
size,  the  branches  '  weep5  or  hang  down  ;  and  as 
they  are  sometimes  thirty  or  forty  feet  long,  and 
not  thicker  than  a  common  packthread,  they  are 
very  beautiful,  especially  when  their  points  dip 
in  a  clear  mountain-stream.  In  some  parts  of 
the  highlands  of  Scotland,  the  birch  is  a  timber 
for  all  uses.  The  stronger  stems  are  the  rafters 
of  the  cabin  ;  and  wattles  of  the  boughs  are 
the  walls  and  the  floor.  Sometimes,  howev- 
er, the  turf,  with  the  heather  on  it,  is  piled  up 
for  walls,  and  on  these  a  few  poles  for  rafters  are 
placed,  which  have  a  covering  of  turf  and  green 
broom  fastened  together  by  straw  bands  or  poles. 

*Betula  alba. 


USES    OF    THE    BIRCH.  213 

Chests  and  boxes  are  often  made  of  a  rude  bask- 
et-work of  birch.  Of  it,  too,  the  highlander 
forms  his  spade,  his  plough,  and,  if  he  is  so 
rich,  his  cart  and  harness  ;  and,  when  other  ma- 
terials are  used,  withes  of  twisted  birch  still 
serve  for  cordage,  which  is,  in  fact,  more  dura- 
ble than  ropes  of  hemp,  and  the  only  preparation 
for  which  is  to  bark  the  twig,  and  twist  it  while 
green.  In  Kamschatka,  the  birches,  which 
abound,  are  employed  for  making  sledges ;  the 
green  bark  is  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  eaten  with 
caviare,  and  the  sap  furnishes  an  agreeable  drink. 
Strong  and  light  canoes  were,  in  early  times, 
made  of  the  bark  ;  and  it  is  still  used  for  the 
same  purpose  in  the  northern  parts  of  America. 
The  canoe-birch,  used  by  the  Indians  and  French 
Canadians,  is  sometimes  seventy  feet  high,  and 
the  weight  of  a  canoe  that  will  hold  four  persons 
does  not  exceed  fifty  pounds. 

E,  That  is  very  handy,  mamma;  for  one  of 
them  can  take  it  up  and  carry  it  wherever  he 
likes.  Sometimes,  too  I  should  think  a  great 
deal  of  time  may  be  saved  ;  because  he  can  thus 
take  a  cut  across,  instead  of  going  all  the  way 
round. 

Mr.  E.  It  may  be,  Emma;  but  the  uses  of 
birch  are  various,  not  forgetting  the  large  rod  of 
it  which  the  old  schoolmasters  found,  I  presume, 
very  effective,  as  a  teacher  of  Latin,  Grammar, 
Geography,  and  other  queer  things  of  the  same 
kind.  I  am  glad  that  Frederick  wants  no  such 
assistance,  for  my  own  sake  as  well  as  his.  The 
alder*  is  not  such  a  handsome  tree  as  the  birch, 

*  Alnus  glutinosa. 

18 


214  THE    ALDER THE     WILLOW. 

neither  is  the  timber  applicable  to  so  many  useful 
purposes.  It  is  a  native  of  almost  every  part  of 
Europe.  Its  bark,  however,  contains  a  good  deal 
of  tannin  ;  the  young  shoots  dye  a  yellow  or  cin- 
namon color,  the  wood  a  brown,  and  the  catkins 
of  the  flower  a  green.  The  timber  of  one  kind 
is  red,  and  often  so  finely  streaked  that  it  is  call- 
ed in  the  north,  Scotch  mahogany,  and  of  it  fur- 
niture is  made. 

E.  Arid  then,  papa,  you  said  something  about 
the  willow.* 

Mr.  E.  The  weeping  willowf  is  a  native  of  the 
Levant,  but  it  thrives  well  in  England,  if  the  sit- 
uation be  not  too  cold,  and  near  the  water.  It 
rises  to  a  considerable  height,  and  no  tree  can 
be  more  graceful  on  the  brink  of  a  lake  or  stream. 
It  is  said  that  Pope,  the  poet,  planted  the  first  in 
England.  Having  received  a  present  of  figs  from 
Turkey,  he  observed  a  twig  of  the  basket  in  which 
they  were  packed,  putting  forth  a  shoot ;  this  he 
planted  in  his  garden,  and  it  soon  became  a  fine 
tree,  from  which  all  the  weeping  willows  in  Eng- 
land have  sprung.  This  parent  tree  was,  how- 
ever, cut  down  a  few  years  ago. 

F.  Is  it  useful  as  well  as  ornamental  ? 
Mrs.  E.  It  is  :  — 

'  The  willow  that  droops  by  the  side  of  a  river, 

And  drinks  all  its  life  from  the  stream  that  flows  by, 

In  return,  spends  that  life  in  the  cause  of  the  giver, 
And  shadows  the  stream  from  the  heat  of  the  sky.' 

The  ancient  Britons  sometimes  made  their  cora- 
cles or  boats,  of  basket-work  of  willow,  arid  then 
covered  them  with  skins  :  they  were  remarkably 
light  and  buoyant.  The  osier,J  when  allowed, 

*Salix.        tSalix  Babylonica.        tSalix  Viminali*. 


THE    POPLAR.  ^It> 

becomes  a  small  tree  ;  but.  it~is  generally  cut  down 
for  basket-work.  For  this  it  was  employed  at  a 
very  early  period.  The  willow  is  also  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal,  for 
which  the^wood  is  built  up  in  a  pyramidal  form, 
and  the  pile  covered  with  clay  or  earth,  leaving 
a  few  air-holes,  which  are  closed  as  soon  as  the 
mass  is  well  lighted.  In  India,  charcoal  is  man- 
ufactured by  a  particular  caste  or  grade  of  the 
natives.  And  now,  I  think,  I  have  described  all 
that  I  omitted  in  former  conversations,  and  men- 
tioned just  now. 

E.  Oh  !  but,  papa,  I  will  think  of  some  more  ! 
Let  me  see  !  —  now  I  have  it  —  there's  the  pop- 
lar ! 

Mr.  E.  True  :  — 

c  The  poplar,  that  with  silver  lines  his  leaf.' 

Of  this  tree  there  are  several  kinds.  The  wood 
of  the  white  poplar  *  is  soft,  but  of  it  some  things 
are  made.  On  the  continent,  one  species  is 
manufactured  into  thin  slices,  called  spartcrie, 
which  is  made  up  into  ladies3  bonnets.  The 
seeds  of  the  former,  also,  ,are  surrounded  with  a 
sort  of  cotton,  of  which  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  produce  paper,  and  even  cloth.  With  the  as- 
pen, or  trembling  poplar,  you  are  familiar :  it  is 
singular,  because  of  the  agitation  of  its  leaves 
from  the  slightest  breeze. 

E.  Now,  mamma,  I  have  thought  of  one  for 
you  — the  ash.t 

Mrs.  E.  The  '  nothing  ill;'  as  Spenser  calls  it, 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  trees.  It  is  denomi- 
nated '  the  husbandman's  tree/  because  it  is  un- 
equalled for  agricultural  implements.  Gilpin 
*Populus  canescens.  tFrainus  excelsior. 


216  THE    ASH  THE    ELM. 

styles  the  oak  the  Hercules  of  the  forest ;  and 
the  ash  the  Venus.  The  one  displays  strength, 
the  other  elegance.  The  foliage  of  the  ash  is 
very  beautiful ;  but  it  drops  its  leaves  early,  and, 
instead  of  adding  its  tint  to  the  many  trees  of  au- 
tumn, its  boughs  are  desolate.  This  tree,  like 
the  beech,  and  the  sycamore,  shows  the  effects 
of  water  on  vegetation  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
by  producing,  in  stiff,  dry  soils,  only  a  few  stunt- 
ed roots ;  whereas,  in  a  deep,  rich,  free  soil,  in- 
numerable fibres  are  developed,  and  the  minutest 
expand  with  facility.  In  the  same  way,  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stems  of  particular  plants  change  in 
certain  situations  to  a  bulbous  structure,  of  which 
the  Timothy  and  fox-tail  grasses  are  examples ; 
and  the  crow-foot,  whose  white  blossoms  may  be 
seen  sprinkled  over  the  waters  of  every  pond,  or 
slow-running  stream,  during  the  summer  months, 
has  three  leaves  which  are  under  water,  divided 
into  thread-like  leaflets,  while  those  which  float 
on  the  surface  are  broad,  rounded,  and  entire. 
The  mountain-ash*  is  a  hardy  but  slow-growing 
tree;  its  white  flowers  and  bright  red  berries 
make  it  ornamental  in  the  shrubbery  ;  but  the 
wood  is  soft,  and  not  durable. 

Mr.  E.  And  I  have  thought  of  another  tree  : — 

' There,  fast-rooted  in  his  bank, 

Stands,  never  overlooked,  our  favorite  elm, 
That  screens  the  herdsman's  solitary  hut.1 

E.  And  don't  you  remember,  papa,  that  fine 
avenue  at  Windsor,  called  '  the  Long  Walk  ?  '  I 
think  you  said,  when  we  were  there,  that  those 
trees  were  elms. 

*  Pyrus  aucuparia. 


COLORING    OF    LEAVES.  217 

Mr.  E.  They  are,  my  dear  ;  though  most  of 
them  have  passed  their  prime.  The  elm  rises  to 
a  greater  height  than  the  generality  of  English 
forest-trees :  its  foliage  hangs  at  once  full  and 
loosely  ;  so  that  it  receives  great  masses  of  light, 
and  produces  *  the  chequered  shade'  which  im- 
parts so  much  beauty  to  woodland  scenes.  It  is 
the  first  tree  which  puts  on  its  light  and  cheerful 
green ;  and  sometimes  very  early  in  the  season 
the  branches  are  dark  with  innumerable  small 
purple  flowers,  often  as  full  as  the  subsequent 
leafy  foliage.  As,  too,  it  has  just  occurred  to 
me,  I  may  mention  a  singular  fact  as  to  the  au- 
tumnal coloring  of  leaves.  M.  Prinsep  had  ob- 
served that,  in  the  leaves  which  naturally  cover 
each  other  in  part,  the  uncovered  portion  is  al- 
ways the  more  quickly  and  more  deeply  colored, 
and  he  felt  anxious  to  determine  if  the  change  of 
color  took  place  in  darkness.  On  sheltering  from 
the  action  of  light,  either  the  whole  branches,  or 
parts  of  leaves,  he  always  found  that  all  change 
of  color  was  prevented.  If  the  entire  leaf  was 
placed  in  the  dark,  it  fell  off  green  ;  if  only  a  part, 
the  rest  changed  color,  and  the  covered  portion 
retained  its  original  hue.  If  he  placed  in  the 
dark,  leaves,  or  portion  of  leaves,  which  were  yel- 
low, before  reddening,  the  leaf  fell  off  yellow,  or 
the  covered  part  retained  that  color,  while  the 
rest  became  red  ;  thus  showing  that  the  action 
of  light  was  necessary  in  all  the  stages  of  color- 
ing. 

Mrs.  E.  A  quotation  from  Conway's  Travels 
will  be  an  appropriate  close  to  the  present  con- 
versation: 'I  must  attempt  a  description  of  the  hol- 
18* 


218  THE    HOLLOW    OF   LUZ. 

low  of  Luz,  for  there  is  nothing  in  any  other  coun- 
try to  which  I  can  liken  it.  Figure  to  yourself 
a  cradle,  or  hollow,  about  two  miles  long,  and  a- 
bout  one  mile  broad,  the  sides  of  this  cradle  be- 
ing the  slopes  of  mountains,  which  rise  from  six 
to  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  level.  This  lit- 
tle hollow,  which  cannot  be  called  a  plain,  be- 
cause it  contains  within  it  some  little  eminences, 
is  an  enamel  of  the  freshest  and  most  beautiful 
hues  in  nature:  the  most  living  green  is  mingled 
with  the  rich  golden  of  the  ripe  harvest,  and  the 
pale  straw  of  the  later  grains.  Oak,  ash,  fir, and 
other  trees,  various  in  their  tints  as  in  their  names, 
are  scattered  single,  or  in  clumps,  over  the  little 
fields  :  the  two  Gaves,  one  from  Gavarnie,  and 
the  other  from  Bareges,  unite  their  streams,  and 
flow  in  graceful  curves  through  this  little  Eden. 
But  these  features  of  beauty  and  fertility  are  not 
confined  to  the  hollow.  Here  the  charm  of  a 
southern  climate  robs  the  mountain  sides  of  their 
heath  and  fern,  and  clothes  them  with  cultivation. 
Two  miles  up  the  mountain-sides,  round  and 
round  the  cradle,  the  yellow  harvest  chequers  the 
landscape.  At  elevations  which,  in  more  northern 
countries,  would  be  abandoned  to  the  heath  and 
the  fir,  waves  the  golden  grain ;  and  both  the 
hollow  and  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  as  far  up 
as  cultivation  extends,  are  scattered  with  houses, 
and  cottages,  and  villages.  All  this  is  beauty  — 
and  of  the  highest,  order.  1  now  come  to  the 
picturesque.  Upon  one  side  of  this  valley,  on  an 
eminence  entirely  separate  from  the  mountain, 
stands  the  town  of  Luz  —  its  buildings,  and  its 
church  rising  out  of  the  wood ;  -and  upon  an- 


PERSIAN   SAGACITY.  219 

other  separate  eminence,  still  higher,  are  seen 
the  extensive  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Saint  Marie. 
At  the  southern  side  of  the  castle,  the  defile  of 
the  Gavarine  opens — a  gorge  presenting  every 
feature  of  the  picturesque  :  the  sides  are  precipi- 
tous rocks,  hanging  thick  with  wood:  a  romantic 
bridge  spans  the  stream;  and,  about  four  hundred 
feet  above  the  river,  embosomed  in  oak,  and 
standing  upon  precipices,  is  seen  the  irregular 
range  of  buildings  which  constitute  the  baths  of 
St.  Sauveur.  But  the  features  of  sublimity  are 
still  to  be  added  :  these  are  the  lofty  summits  of  the 
highest  of  the  Pyrenees;  jagged  rocks  and .^fa&w 
peaks,  which,  from  various  spots,  and  particular- 
ly from  the  ruins  of  St.  Marie,  are  seen  rising 
behind  the  nearer  mountains,  and  forming  a  wi- 
der and  still  more  sublime  amphitheatre/ 


PERSIAN  SAGACITY. 

'WHAT  do  you  think,  papa,  mamma  told  me 
this  morning  ?  '  said  Emma. 

*  Something  worthy  your  remembrance,  no 
doubt,  my  dear  little  girl,'  replied  her  father; 
'  but  it  is  not  easy  to  guess  what. ' 

'  Then  I  will  tell  you,  papa,  '  was  the  rejoind- 
er;  'it  was  that,  when  a  Persian  philosopher  was 
once  asked  how  he  had  acquired  so  much  know- 
ledge, he  replied  —  «'  By  not  being  prevented  by 
shame  from  asking  questions  when  I  was  igno- 
rant." ' 


220  THE    SYCAMORE, 

1  His  conduct  was  wise, '  said  Mr.  Elvvood, 
and  deserves  imitation  ;  but  you  and  Frederick, 
smile  very  knowingly.  What  else  have  you  to 
tell  me  ? ' 

'  That  we  should  like  to  do  as  he  did,  papa, ' 
replied  Frederick,  '  that  we  may  be  wise  too. 
You  said,  some  time  ago,  if  we  found  anything 
we  did  not  understand  in  the  Bible,  and  would 
come  and  ask  you,  you  would  tell  us;  and  so  we 
came  to  inquire  about  several  things;  and  here 
comes  dear  —  dear  mamma,  who  will  not,  I  know, 
let  you  be  too  tired. ' 

'  I  am  sure,  my  dears,  it  will  afford  us  pleasure 
to  meet  your  wishes, '  said  Mr.  Elwood  ; '  it  is  de- 
lightful to  give  you  general  information  ;  but  es- 
pecially to  instruct  you  in  that  f  word '  which  God 
'  has  magnified  above  all  his  name. '  But,  what 
is  your  first  question  ? ' 

F.  What  kind  of  a  tree  is  the  sycamore  ? 

Mr.  E.  The  name  it  bears  is  formed  of  two 
words ;  one  means  a  fig-tree,  and  the  other  a  mul- 
berry-tree, because  it  resembles  the  latter  in  its 
leaves,  and  the  former  in  its  fruit.  The  sycamore 
is  of  the  height  of  a  beech,  and  bears  its  fruit  in 
a  manner  quite  different  from  other  trees  :  it  has 
them  on  the  trunk  itself,  which  shoots  out  little 
sprigs  in  the  form  of  grape-stalks,  at  the  end  of 
which  grow  the  fruit,  close  to  one  another,  almost 
like  a  cluster  of  grapes.  The  tree  is  always 
green,  and  bears  fruit  several  times  in  the  year, 
without  observing  any  certain  seasons.  The 
fruit  has  the  figure  and  smell  of  real  figs,  but  is 
inferior  to  them  in  the  taste,  having  a  disagreeable 
sweetness.  Its  color  is  a  yellow,  inclining  to  an 


THE    POMEGRANATE.  221 

ochre,  shadowed  by  a  flesh-color.  In  the  inside 
it  resembles  the  common  figs,  except  that  it  has 
a  blackish  coloring,  with  yellow  spots.  The  tree 
is  pretty  common  in  Egypt ;  the  people,  for  the 
greater  part,  live  on  its  fruit,  arid  think  themselves 
well  regaled  when  they  have  a  piece  of  bread,  a 
couple  of  sycamore-figs,  and  a  pitcher  of  water. 
In  Palestine,  too,  it  is  often  seen.  Its  timber  has 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  buildings,  and 
has  proved  very  durable.  Dr.  Shaw  states,  when 
describing  the  catacombs  and  mummies  of  Egypt, 
that  he  found  both  the  mummy-chests,  and  the 
little  square  boxes,  containing  various  figures, 
which  are  placed  at  the  feet  of  each  mummy,  to 
be  made  of  sycamore-wood,  and  thus  preserved, 
uncorrupled  and  entire,  for  at  least  three  thou- 
sand years. 

E.  Dear !  how  long  it  lasts  !  Amos  called  him- 
self, papa,  *  a  gatherer  of  sycamore-fruit ;'  was 
there  anything  singular  in  this"? 

Mr.  E.  There  was,  my  dear.  It  is  stated, 
by  several  ancient  writers,  that  the  fruit  of  the 
sycamore  must  be  cut,  or  scratched,  either  with 
the  nail  or  with  iron,  before  it  "will  ripen;  and, 
if  our  translators  had  said  that  Amos  was  a  syca- 
more-tree dresser,  it  would  have  been  more  de- 
scriptive of  his  occupation  before  he  became  a 
prophet. 

E.  I  should  think  so,  papa.  Now,  mamma, 
will  you  tell  us  something  about  pomegranates?* 

Mrs.  E.  It  was,  formerly,  one  of  the  most 
delicate  fruits  of  the  East.  The  tree  sometimes 

*  Punica  Granatum. 


222  TH72    POMEGRANATE. 

rises  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet,  is  covered  with 
a  brownish  bark,  and  is  divided  into  many  small 
branches,  which  are  armed  with  spines  ;  the  leaves 
are  oblong,  or  lance-shaped,  pointed,  veined,  of 
a  deep  green  color,  and  placed  upon  short  foot- 
stalks. Its  flowers  are  large,  of  a  rich  scarlet 
color,  and  stand  at  the  end  of  the  young  branches, 
and  sometimes  appear  in  clusters  ;  but  the  times 
of  their  blowing  are  so  irregular,  that  the  succes- 
sion is  often  continued  for  months.  The  fruit  is 
about  the  size  of  an  orange  ;  the  tind  is  thick  and 
tough,  externally  reddish,  internally  yellowish, 
filled  with  a  red,  juicy  pulp,  contained  in  trans- 
parent, cellular  membrane,  and  included  in  nine 
cells,  within  which  numerous  oblong,  angular 
seeds  are  also  lodged.  The  high  estimation  in 
which  the  pomegranate  was  held  by  the  Israel- 
ites, is  evident  from  its  being  one  of  the  three 
kinds  of  fruit  brought  by  the  spies  from  Eshcol 
to  Moses  and  the  congregation  in  the  wilderness  ; 
and  from  their  mentioning  it  as  one  of  the  great- 
est luxuries  they  enjoyed  in  Egypt,  and  the  want 
of  which  they  felt  so  severely  in  the  sandy  desert. 
One  principal  recommendation  of  the  promised 
land  was  its  yielding  promegranates. 

F.  Has  the  fruit  been  produced  in  England, 
mamma? 

Mrs.  E.  Here  it  seldom  arrives  at  maturity ; 
but  the  tree  is  highly  prized  as  an  ornament,  the 
flowers  being  of  a  bright  scarlet  color,  and,  es- 
pecially the  double  ones,  very  handsome.  The 
odor  is  as  fragrant  as  their  color  is  bright.  This 
tree,  too,  is  long-lived.  At  Paris  and  Versailles, 
some  specimens  have  existed  more  than  two  cen- 
turies. But  papa  is  ready  for  another  inquiry. 


THE    LIGN    ALOE CHINESE    ALOE.        223 

E.  What,  papa,  was  the  lign-aloe  ? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  tree  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height, 
with  a  tolerable  stout  stem.  At  the  top  grows  a 
large  tuft  of  jagged'  and  thick  leaves,  broad  at 
the  bottom,  but  growing  narrower  towards  the 
point,  and  about  four  feet  in  length.  The  blos- 
soms are  red,  intermingled  with  yellow,  and  dou- 
ble, like  cloves  ;  from  which  comes  a  red  and 
white  fruit,  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  oblong  and  trian- 
gular, with  three  apartments  filled  with  seed. 
The  tree  has  a  very  beautiful  appearance,  and  a 
forest  of  them  is  said  to  resemble  a  numerous 
encampment.  Under  the  bark  there  are  three 
sorts  of  wood :  the  first  black,  solid,  and  weighty  ; 
the  second  tawny,  of  a  light  spongy  texture,  and 
filled  with  a  fragrant  and  agreeable  resin  ;  the 
third,  which  is  the  heart,  of  a  fine,  strong  aro- 
matic smell,  used  for  perfume,  and  esteemed,  in 
the  East,  as  more  precious  than  gold. 

F.  Are  other  aloes  remarkable  ? 

Mr.  E.  In  China  the  aloe  has  the  height  and 
figure  of  an  olive  tree.  It  contains  within  the 
bark  three  sorts  of  wood  :  the  first,  black,  com- 
pact, and  heavy,  is  called  eagle-wood  —  it  is 
scarce  ;  the  second,  called  calambooc,  is  light, 
like  rotten-wood ;  the  third,  near  the  centre,  is 
called  calamba-wood,  and  sells,  in  India,  for  its 
weight  in  gold.  Its  smell  is  exquisite  :  it  is  an 
excellent  cordial  in  cases  of  fainting,  or  of  palsy. 

E.  What  can  you  tell  us  about  manna,  mam- 
ma? 

Mrs.  E.  I  will  read  you,  in  answer  to  this 
question,  a  quotation  from  Burckhardt.  He  says 
it  is  obtained  from  the  tamarisk,  or  tarfa :  —  'In 


224  MANNA, 

the  month  of  June  it  drops  from  the  thorns  of  the 
tree  on  the  fallen  twigs,  leaves,  and  thorns,  which 
always  cover  the  ground  beneath  that  tree  in 
the  natural  state  ;  the  manna  is  collected  before 
sun-rise,  when  it  is  coagulated^  but  it  dissolves  as 
soon  as  the  sun  shines  upon  it.  The  Arabs  clear 
away  the  dust  and  leaves  which  adhere  to  it, 
boil  it,  strain  it  through  a  coarse  piece  of  cloth, 
and  put  it  into  leather  skins :  in  this  way  they 
preserve  it  till  the  following  year,  and  use  it  as 
they  do  honey,  to  pour  over  their  unleavened 
bread,  or  to  dip  their  bread  into.  I  could  not 
learn  that  it  was  ever  made  into  cakes,  or  loaves. 
The  manna  is  found  only  in  years  in  which  co- 
pious rains  have  fallen  :  sometimes  it  is  not  pro- 
duced at  all,  as  will  probably  happen  this  year/ 
But  this  statement  does  not  satisfy  me  that  the 
manna  the  traveller  has  described  was  that  of  the 
Israelites. 

F.  What  do  you  think  it  was,  then,  mamma? 

Mrs.  E.  Its  substance  is,  1  think,  unknown; 
but  I  have  no  doubt  that,  so  far  from  its  being  a 
natural  production,  it  was  miraculously  sent  to 
relieve  the  wants  of  the  Israelites.  I  will  men- 
tion some  remarkable  points  of  difference,  which 
have  been  suggested  by  a  most  judicious  Jewish 
interpreter.  The  natural  manna  was  never 
found  in  the  desert  where  this  fell  :  where  the 
common  manna  does  fall  it  is  only  in  the  spring- 
time, in  March  and  April,  whereas  this  fell 
throughout  all  the  mouths  of  the  year:  the  ordi- 
nary marina  does  not  become  corrupt,  as  this  did, 
if  kept  till  the  morning  :  it  cannot  be  ground  or 
beaten  in  a  mortar,  so  as  to  make  cakes,  as  this 


THE     PALM-TREE.  225 

was:  the  common  manna  is  medical,  and  cannot 
be  used  for  food,  like  this :  this  fell  in  a  double 
proportion  on  the  sixth  day,  and  not  on  the  Sab- 
bath, as  it  would  have  done  had  it  fallen  natur- 
ally :  it  followed  the  Israelites  in  all  their  jour- 
neys, wherever  they  pitched  their  tents ;  and  it 
ceased  at  the  very  time  of  the  year  when  the  oth- 
er falls.  It  is  evident  that  they  never  saw  it  be- 
fore ;  and,  by  a  pot  of  it  being  laid  up  in  the  ark,  it 
is  as  likely  that  nothing  of  the  kind  appeared  again. 

F.  Thank  you,  dear  mamma :  we  will  try  and 
remember  what  you  have  said  ;  and  perhaps  papa 
will  now  be  so  kind  as  to  describe  to  us  the  palm- 
tree. 

Mr.  E.  The  trunk  is  remarkably  straight  and 
lofty,  and  is  crowned  at  the  top  by  a  large  tuft 
of  leaves,  about  four  feet  long,  which  are  con- 
stantly renewed,  and  always  retain  their  rich  ver- 
dure. The  stalks  are  generally  full  of  rugged 
knots,  which  are  vestiges  of  decayed  leaves  ;  for 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  not  solid,  but  its  centre  is 
filled  with  pitch,  round  which  is  a  tough  bark, 
full  of  strong  fibres  when  young,  which,  as  the 
tree  grows  old,  hardens,  and  becomes  ligneous, 
or  woody.  To  this  bark  the  leaves  are  closely 
joined,  which,  in  the  centre,  rise  erect,  but,  after 
they  are  advanced  above  the  sheath  that  sur- 
rounds them,  .they  expand  very  wide  on  every 
side  of  the  stem,  and,  as  the  older  leaves  decay, 
the  stalk  advances  in  height.  The  leaves,  when 
the  tree  has  grown  to  a  size  for  bearing  fruit,  are 
six  or  eight  feet  long,  and  very  wide  when  ex- 
panded. The  fruit  called  the  date  grows  below 
the  leaves  in  clusters. 
19 


226  THE    PALM-TREE. 

E.  Is  it  long  before  it  bears  fruit  ? 

Mr.  E.  The  palm-tree  arrives  at  its  greatest 
vigor  about  thirty  years  after*  transplantation ; 
and  continues  so  for  seventy  years,  bearing  an- 
nually fifteen  or  twenty  clusters  of  dates,  each  of 
them  weighing  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds.  Its 
produce,  however,  depends  much  on  circum- 
stances. It  requires  no  other  culture  and  at- 
tendance than  to  be  well  watered  once  in  four  or 
five  days,  and  to  have  a  few  of  the  lower  boughs 
lopped  off,  whenever  they  begin  to  droop  or  with- 
er. Those  whose  stumps,  or  pollices,  being  thus 
gradually  left  on  the  trunk,  seem  like  so  many 
rounds  of  a  ladder,  to  climb  up  the  tree,  are 
quickly  supplied  with  others,  which  gradually 
hang  down  from  the  top  or  crown,  contributing, 
not  only  to  the  regular  and  uniform  growth  of  the 
tree,  but,  likewise,  to  its  perpetual  and  delightful 
verdure.  Rearing  its  stem,  and  expanding  its 
broad  and  beautiful  shade  where  there  is  nothing 
else  to  shelter  man  from  the  burning  rays  of  the 
sun,  the  palm-tree  is  hailed  by  the  wanderer  in 
the  desert  with  more  pleasure  than  any  other 
tree  ;  for,  in  addition  to  its  shade  and  its  fruit, 
wherever  a  little  clump  of  palms  contrasts  their 
bright  green  with  the  red  wilderness  around,  he 
may  almost  be  sure  that  he  shall  find  a  fountain 
ready  to  afford  him  its  cooling  and  refreshing  wa- 
ter. When  Moses  and  the  Israelites  arrived  at 
Elim,  they  found  twelve  wells  of  water,  by  the 
side  of  seventy  palm-trees  ;  and  Sir  Robert  Wil- 
son says,  that  when  the  English  army  landed  in 
Egypt,  in  1801,  to  expel  the  French  from  that 
country,  Sir  Sidney  Smith  assured  the  troops  that, 


THE     PALM-TREE.  227 

wherever  date-trees  grew,  water  must  be  near; 
and  so  they  found  it,  on  digging  usually  within 
such  a  distance  that  the  roots  of  the  tree  could 
obtain  moisture  from  the  fluid.  Water  is  indeed 
a  precious  element,  but  never  so  valuable  as  in 
such  circumstances.  'To  be  thirsty  in  a  desert/ 
says  Belzoni, '  without  water,  exposed  to  the  burn- 
ing sun  without  shelter,  and  with  no  hopes  of 
finding  either,  is  the  most  terrible  situation  that 
a  man  can  be  placed  in,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
sufferings  that  a  human  being  can  sustain.' 

E.  I  am  not  surprised  then,  mamnja,  that  peo- 
ple love  the  palm-tree. 

Mrs.  E.  There  are  many  reasons  for  their  do- 
ing so.  The  harvest  of  dates  is  expected  with  as 
much  anxiety,  and  attended  with  as  general  re- 
joicing, as  the  vintage  of  the  South  of  Europe. 
The  crop  sometimes  fails,  or  is  destroyed  by  lo- 
custs, and  then  a  universal  gloom  prevails. 
When  no  ripe  dates  can  be  procured,  the  princi- 
pal substance  of  the  people  is  the  date-paste, 
which  is  prepared  by  pressing  the  fruit,  when  ful- 
ly matured,  in  large  baskets.  '  What  is  the  price 
of  dates  at  Mecca,  or  Medina?'  is  always  the 
first  question  asked  by  a  Bedouin,  who  meets  a 
passenger  on  the  road.  There  is  hardly  any  part 
of  the  tree  which  is  not  serviceable  to  man,  ei- 
ther as  a  necessary  or  a  luxury.  When  the  fruit 
is  completely  ripened,  it  will  yield,  by  strong  pres- 
sure, a  delicious  syrup,  which  is  used  for  preserv- 
ing dates,  and  other  fruits,  or  the  fruit  may  be 
made  into  jellies  and  tarts.  Palm-wine  is  also 
made  from  the  date. 

E.  Can  anything  more  be  done  with  it,  papa  ? 


228  THE     PALM-TREE. 

Mr.  E.  Gibbon  says,  that  the  diligent  natives 
celebrated,  either  in  prose  or  verse,  the  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  uses  to  which  the  trunk,  the 
branches,  the  leaves,  the  juice,  and  the  fruit 
were  skilfully  applied.  And  Dr.  Clarke  remarks, 
that  the  extensive  importance  of  the  date-tree  is, 
one  of  the  most  curious  subjects  to  which  a  trav- 
eller can  direct  his  attention.  A  considerable 
part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  of  Arabia,  and 
of  Persia,  subsist  almost  entirely  on  its  fruit. 
They  boast  also  of  its  medical  virtues.  Their 
camels  feed  on  the  date-stone.  From  the  leaves 
they  make  couches,  baskets,  bags,  mats,  and 
brushes  ;  from  the  branches  cages  for  their  poul- 
try, and  fences  for  their  gardens ;  from  the  fibres 
of  the  boughs,  thread,  ropes,  and  rigging ;  from 
the  sap  is  prepared  a  spirituous  liquor ;  and  the 
body  of  the  tree  furnishes  fuel,  and  also  yields  a 
nutritious  substance. 

Mrs.  E.  From  another  and  smaller  species,* 
which  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  the  supply 
of  this  farinaceous  matter  is  better  and  more 
abundant.  It  is  a  very  low  tree,  or  rather  a  great 
leafy  bush  ;  for  the  trunk  is  never  above  a  foot  and 
a  half,  or  two  feet  in  height,  and  the  leaves  com- 
pletely conceal  it.  These  are  of  a  much  deeper 
green,  and  much  narrower  than  those  of  the  date. 
The  berries  are  about  the  size  of  kidney  beans, 
and  of  a  shining  black ;  they  have  not  much  pulp, 
but  what  they  have  is  sweet  and  mealy.  In  times 
of  scarcity,  the  natives  of  Hindostan  have  re- 
course to  the  wood  of  this  palm  for  food.  When 
the  stem  is  stripped  of  the  leaves,  and  of  the 

*  Phoenix  farinifera. 


THE    PALM-TREE.  229 

brown  fibrous  matter  with  which  their  roots  are 
covered,  it  is  about  eighteen  inches  long,  and  six 
in  diameter  where  thickest.  The  outside  con- 
sists of  woody  fibres,  of  a  white  color,  and  very 
much  matted  together,  and  within  these  the  fari- 
naceous matter  is  contained.  To  obtain  that, 
the  trunk  is  split  into  pieces ;  these  are  dried, 
beat  in  mortars,  and  then  the  mass  is  shifted  to 
separate  the  fibres.  After  this  the  farina  is  ready 
for  being  boiled  into  congee,  or  gruel,  which 
has  saved  the  lives  of  many  whom  famine  has 
threatened  with  destruction. 

E.  Now,  I  suppose  we  have  heard  every  thing 
about  the  palm.  What  an  extraordinary  tree 
it  is ! 

Mr.  E.  Oh,  no !  much  more  remains  to  be 
told.  The  true  sago-palm  of  Asia  yields  a  great- 
er quantity  of  nourishing  matter  than  any  other 
plant,  except  the  banana.  The  single  trunk  of 
a  tree  of  this  species,  in  its  fifteenth  year,  some- 
times furnishes  six  hundred  pounds  of  sago.  It 
has  even  been  calculated  that  a  single  acre  of 
land  will  support  four  hundred  and  thirty-five 
sago-palms,  which  will  annually  produce  120,500 
pounds  of  sago. 

E.  What  a  quantity  !  How  many  sick  people 
would  that  relieve,  though  they  ate  as  much  as  I 
did  when  I  was  ill !  But  I  must  listen,  and  not 
talk  ;  for  I  see  you  have  more  to  tell  us,  —  and 
mamma  is  just  bringing  a  book  to  the  table. 

Mr.E.  The  northern  bank  of  the  Oronoco,  the 
great  river  of  South  America,  is  covered  with 
palms,  which  produce  sago.  The  whole  country 
19* 


230  THE  SAGO-PALM THE  CABBAGE-PALM. 

in  which  they  abound  is  subject  to  inundations ; 
and  the  fan-like  branches  of  these  trees  look  like 
a  forest  which  rises  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  wa- 
ters. The  navigator,  who  passes  along,  is  sur- 
prised to  see  the  tops  of  these  trees  lighted  with 
fires.  They  are  kindled  by  the  Guanacas,  a  peo- 
ple who  have  remained  for  ages  in  these  marshy 
districts,  —  secured  from  the  floods  by  living 
among  the  palms.  In  the  branches  they  suspend 
mats,  which  they  fill  with  clay,  and  on  this  damp 
hearth  kindle  the  fires  which  are  necessary  to 
their  comfort.  The  palm  offers  to  this  rude  race, 
as  well  as  to  other  tribes  who  inhabit  the  Gulf  of 
Darien,  and  the  watery  lands  between  the  Gua- 
rapitha,  and  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon,  —  a  safe 
habitation  amidst  their  '  perils  of  waters/  It  af- 
fords i  them,  also,  in  its  fruit,  its  farinaceous 
bark,  its  sap,  abounding  with  sugar,  and  its  fi- 
brous stalks, —  pleasant  food  to  eat,  wine  to  drink 
and  thread  to  make  cordage  and  hammocks. 
'  It  is  curious  to  behold/  says  Humboldt,  '  in  the 
lowest  stage  of  human  civilization,  the  existence 
of  a  whole  race  depending  upon  a  single  species 
of  palm,  in  a  similar  degree  with  those  insects 
which  subsist  but  on  one  species  of  flower.' 

Mrs.  E.  I  must  read  you  an  extract  from  Dr. 
Walsh's  Brazil,  which  will  present  you  with  an- 
other singular  fact : '  Among  the  trees  which  gave 
the  woods,  to  a  European,  a  peculiar  character, 
none  was  more  striking  than  the  singularity  of  the 
palm-trees.  These  were  seen  shooting  above  the 
rest  to  an  immense  height,  with  their  long  and 
slender  stems  crowned  with  feathery  foliage,  like 
ostriches'  plumes,  waving  in  the  air ;  and  of  all 


THE    CABBAGE-PALM.  231 

these  the  assai  is  the  most  elegant  and  beautiful. 
It  is  the  taper  palm  which  yields  the  cabbage. 
It  rises  from  a  slender  stem,  not  more  than  six 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  base  ;  and  it  shoots 
sometimes  up  to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet  or 
more.  The  stem  is  marked  by  annual  rings,  five 
or  six  inches  asunder  ;  and  near  the  summit  is  a 
long  succulent,  or  juicy  cylinder,  from  which  the 
leaves  issue.  This  green  foot-stalk  contains  the 
embryo  of  the  plant.  It  consists  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  future  leaves,  beautifully  plaited 
and  convoluted  at  the  centre ;  and  their  devel- 
opment from  hence  forms  the  elegant  tuft  that 
crowns  the  summit.  This  portion  is  exceedingly 
tender,  yielding  a  pleasant  and  wholesome  vege- 
table, like  cabbage,  boiled  and  eaten  with  meat. 
From  all  parts  of  the  woods,  this  elegant  tree  was 
seen  shooting  above  its  companions,  waving  in 
every  breeze  its  long  flexible  stem,  and  its  tuft  of 
light  silken  leaves.  It  seemed,  indeed,  to  be- 
long more  to  the  sky  than  to  the  earth  :  in  some 
places,  it  crowned  the  summits  of  the  highest 
ridges,  and  was  the  only  one  whose  foliage  was 
seen  projected  on  the  blue  sky,  like  Berenice's 
hair  floating  in  the  starry  firmament ;  for  the  stem 
that  supported  it  was  so  slender  that  it  could  not 
be  discerned  in  the  distance.  It  was  with  great 
regret  I  first  attacked  this  beautiful  tree,  and  ut- 
terly destroyed  it  for  the  small  portion  of  its  es- 
culent part.  When  we  saw  it  growing  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  near  the  road,  we  seized  its  taper 
stem,  and  bent  it  down,  till  it  snapped  off  near 
the  root,  and  lay  prostrate  across  the  way.  Here 
we  cut  off  its  graceful  head,  and  left  its  body  to 


232  THE    TICU-PALM. 

decay.  In  any  other  country  this  might  be  deem- 
ed a  wanton  and  unjustifiable  act  of  destruction  ; 
but,  in  this,  it  was  only  removing  that  which 
encumbered  the  soil  with  its  profusion.' 

F.  Ah,  that  is  remarkable  !  I  fear  now,  papa, 
you  and  mamma  must  be  quite  tired. 

Mr.E.  Not  too  much  so  to  mention  a  few 
things  more.  The  Brazilians  are  beginning  to 
use  the  ticu-palm*  as  a  substitute  for  hemp  and 
flax.  The  leaf  is  long  and  exceedingly  fibrous, 
covered  with  small  spines.  When  bent  in  the 
middle,  the  ribs  of  the  leaf,  which  are  very  brit- 
tle, crack  and  separate  ;  the  ends  are  then  drawn 
down  at  each  side,  and  leaves  a  series  of  strong 
fibres  of  the  best  quality  behind  them,  which  are 
very  applicable  to  the  purposes  of  manufacture. 
The  tree  is  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high ;  and  the 
stem  as  thick  as  the  wrist,  divided  into  joints,  and 
circle  of  spines  round  each.  It  yields,  also,  an 
acid  fruit,  which  grows  in  clusters  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  stem.  It  consists  of  a  stone  covered 
over  with  a  pulp,  and  enclosed  in  a  purple  skin,  so 
that  it  is  very  like  a  bunch  of  purple  grapes. 
The  fruit  is  cooling  and  agreeable  :  the  stone  ex- 
actly resembles  a  cocoa-nut  in  miniature,  and  has 
a  kernel  within. 

Mrs.  E.  In  the  city  of  Delhi,  there  is  said  to 
be  an  extraordinary  work  of  art,  culled  '  the  pea- 
cock-throne.' It  is  an  oval  form,  placed  under  a 
palm-tree  which  overshadows  it  with  its  foliage ;  a 
peacock,  perched  on  one  of  the  large  palmated 
leaves,  stretches  its  wings  to  cover  the  person  who 

*  Bartris  acanthocarpos. 


SYMBOLS.  233 

is  seated  on  the  throne.  The  palm-tree  and  pea- 
cock are  of  gold  ;  so  thin  and  delicate  are  the  fea- 
thers and  leaves  that  they  seem  to  wave  and  trem- 
ble with  the  slightest  breath  of  wind.  The  tail 
and  wings  of  the  peacock  glitter  with  superb  em- 
eralds. The  fruit  of  the  palm  is  partly  executed 
in  Golconda  diamonds,  and  it  is  an  exact  imita- 
tion of  nature. 

The  root  of  the  palm-tree  produces  a  great 
number  of  stickers,  which,  spreading  upwards, 
form  a  kind  of  forest.  Under  a  little  wood  of  this 
kind,  it  has  been  thought,  the  prophetess  Debo- 
rah dwelt,  between  Ramah  and  Bethel  ;  and  Dr. 
Shaw  supposes  that,  when  it  is  said,  '  the  righ- 
teous shall  flourish  like  the  palm-tree/  the  proph- 
et alludes  rather  to  this  multiplication  of  it  than 
to  its  towering  height.  It  is  probable  that  Ta- 
mar,  or  Tadmar,  built  in  the  desert  by  Solomon, 
and  afterwards  called  Palmyra  by  the  Greeks, 
obtained  its  name  from  the  number  of  palm-trees 
which  grew  about  it.  The  finest  appear,  how- 
ever, to  have  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Jordan  and 
Engeddi ;  and  they  still  flourish  in  the  plain  of  Jer- 
icho, which  was  anciently  termed,  by  way  of  dis- 
tinction, 'the  city  of  palm-trees.7  In  1818,  but 
few  of  them  were  left.  The  palm-tree  was  the 
common  symbol  of  Palestine  :  many  coins  of  Ves- 
pasian and  other  emperors  being  extant,  in  which 
Judea  is  personified  by  a  disconsolate  woman  sit- 
ting under  a  palm-tree.  It  is  frequently  employ- 
ed in  the  Scriptures  as  an  image ;  but  '  chiefly  is 
the  comparison  applicable/  says  Bishop  Home, 
'  to  the  Just  One,  the  King  of  Righteousness,  and 
Tree  of  Life;  eminent  and  upright;  ever  ver- 


234  SYMBOLS. 

dant  and  fragrant ;  under  the  greatest  pressure 
and  weight  of  sufferings,  still  ascending  towards 
heaven ;  affording  both  fruit  and  protection  ;  in- 
corruptible and  immortal/ 

E.  I  have  just  thought,  mamma,  that  those 
who  stand  around  the  throne  have  palms  in  their 
hands. 

Mrs.  E.  They  have,  my  dear,  as  the  symbols 
of  victory  :  but  they  enjoy  the  glory  which  is  yet 
to  be  revealed.  We  have  often  gazed  on  the 
beauties  of  this  lower  world  ;  and,  as  we  do  so, 
we  may  well  say  with  the  poet, — : 

e  Oh,  good  beyond  compare  ! 

If  thus  thy  meaner  works  are  fair, — 

If  thus  thy  bounties  gild  the  span 

Of  ruined  earth  and  sinful  man : 

How  glorious  must  that  mansion  be 

Where  thy  redeemed  shall  dwell  with  thee"!' 

E.  Oh,  dear  Frederick  !  what  a  number  of  de- 
lightful things  we  have  heard  since  I  told  papa 
about  the  philosopher !  Let  us  do  as  he  did, 
always. 

Mr.  E.  I  shall  be  glad  to  find  you  do,  my 
dears ;  and  then  you  will  owe  much  to  an  imita* 
tion  of  Persian  sagacity. 


THE  LAST  ROSES.  235 


THE  LAST   ROSES. 

c  I  AM  so  sorry,  mamma/  said  Emma;  ( these 
seem  the  last  roses  we  shall  have  this  summer  ; 
the  others  —  and  there  was  such  a  number  !  are 
all  gone  :  and  these  will  soon  fade. —  I  wish  they 
were  all  about  to  bloom. ; 

*  We  must  wait  for  that  pleasure/  replied  Mrs. 
Elwood  ;  "  and,  in  the  mean  time,  regard  the  me- 
mento they  give  of  our  own  frailty.  In  this  world 
we  must  look  for  disappointments  and  sorrows  — 
they  are  a  part  of  the  common  lot :  but  life  has 
its  pleasures  and  its  joys  too.  How  beautifully 
has  some  writer  said,  to  one  who  declared  it  had 
no  reality  but  woe, — 

'  Oh  !  say  not  so  —  although  to  man 

No  longer  it  is  given, 
To  breathe  the  gales  of  Paradise, 

And  hear  the  strains  of  heaven  ;  — 
Though  sin  has  shed  her  withering  blight 
On  all  that  once  was  fair  and  bright ; 
And  each  his  pligrim  path  must  tread, 
Where  thorns  and  briers  are  thickly  spread  ; 
Yet  many  a  floweret,  in  its  bloom, 
Flings  o'er  this  path  its  rich  perfume ; 
And  many  a  spot  of  brightest  green, 
To  gem  the  wilderness  is  seen.' 

'  I  should  like  to  learn  those  verses,  mamma/ 
said  Emma,  c  they  are  so  pretty  !  But,  do  you 
know,  as  I  looked  at  the  roses  we  have  just  pass- 
ed, I  thought  of  Jonah  when  his  gourd  withered, 
what  sort  of  a  plant  or  tree  was  that,  mamma  ?  ' 

Mrs.  E.  That  is  a  question  to  which  many  dif- 
ferent answers  have  been  given.  Michaelis  thought 
it  was  the  '  kiki'  of  the  Egyptians.  In  Greece, 
we  are  told,  this  plant  springs  spontaneously,  with- 


236  JONAH'S  GOURD. 

out  any  cultivation  ;  but  the  Egyptians  sow  it  on 
the  banks  of  the  river,  and  of  the  canals ;  and 
there  it  produces  fruit  in  abundance.  This  plant 
runs,  with  a  strong  herbaceous  stalk,  to  the  height 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  has  very  large  leaves. 
Rabbi  Kirnchi  states  that  the  people  of  the  east 
plant  them  before  their  shops,  for  the  sake  of  the 
shade,  and  to  refresh  themselves  under  them. — 
Niebuhr  says,  ' I  saw,  for  the  first  time,  at  Bas- 
ra, the  plant  mentioned  by  Michaelis.  It  has  the 
form  of  a  tree.  The  trunk  appeared  to  me  rath- 
er to  resemble  leaves  than  wood.  Each  branch 
has  but  one  large  leaf,  with  six  or  seven  foldings 
in  it.  It  had  risen  in  five  months'  time,  about 
eight  feet,  and  bore,  at  once,  flowers  and  fruit, 
ripe  and  unripe.  The  flowers  and  leaves  of  an- 
other tree  of  the  same  species,  which  I  gathered, 
withered  in  a  few  minutes,  as  do  all  plants  of  rap- 
id growth.'  It  is  not  improbable  that  Jonah's 
gourd  was  of  this  kind.  But,  as  the  history 
expressly  says  the  Lord  prepared  this  plant,  we 
may  conceive  of  it  as  an  extraordinary  one  of  its 
species  —  remarkably  rapid  in  its  growth,  remark- 
ably hard  in  its  stem,  remarkably  vigorous  in  its 
branches,  and  remarkable  for  the  extensive  spread 
of  its  leaves,  and  the  deep  gloom  of  their  shadow  ; 
and,  after  a  certain  duration,  remarkable  for  a 
sudden  withering,  and  a  total  uselessness  to  the 
impatient  prophet.  Now  I  think  we  will  return 
to  the  house.  Our  walk  has  been  pleasant  : — 
and  there  —  papa  and  Frederick  are  coming,  and 
will  soon  join  us. 

E.  Papa,  will  you  allow  me  to  ask  you  one  or 
two  questions,  while  you  take  your  coffee  ? 


CAROB-TREE  CINNAMOX-GARDEN.  237 

Mr..  E.  Twenty,  if  you  please,  my  little  Per- 
sian. 

E.  What  were  the  husks  the  prodigal  son  wish- 
ed to  eat  ? 

Mr.  E.  Both  the  Greek  and  Latin  terms  sig- 
nify the  fruit  of  the  carob-tree,  which  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  Levant,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  It  still  continues  to  be  used  for  feeding 
swine.  It  is  also  called  St.  John's  bread,  from 
the  idea  that  the  Baptist  used  it  in  the  wilder- 
ness. It  is  said  to  be  mealy,  to  have  a  sweetish 
taste,  and  to  be  eaten  by  the  poorer  people.  In 
Arabia,  the  trees  which  bear  this  fruit  are  called 
kharunts :  they  are  of  a  large  size,  and  the 
branches  spread  very  wide.  The  leaves  have  a 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  pear-tree,  only  they 
are  broader,  and  not  so  much  pointed :  they  are 
evergreen,  and  afford  an  agreeable  shade  in  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  fruit  consists  of  pods, 
which  are  rather  longer  than  a  finger,  an  inch 
broad,  and  as  crooked  as  a  sickle  :  they  have  a 
very  sweet  and  pleasant  taste. 

E.  Thank  you,  papa;  that  is  all  quite  new  to 
me.  Now  will  you  tell  us  something  about  cin- 
namon I 

Mr.  E.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Solomon  im- 
ported it  from  India.  In  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
however,  it  especially  flourishes.  I  will  read  you 
an  account  of  it  from  Bishop  Heber's  Journal. 
*  In  the  afternoon  we  drove  through  the  far-famed 
cinnamon-gardens,  which  cover  upwards  of  17,000 
acres  of  land  on  the  coast,  the  largest  of  which 
are  near  Colombo.  The  plant  thrives  best  in  a 
poor  sandy  soil,  in  a  damp  atmosphere  :  it  grows 
20 


238  PREPARATION    OF    CINNAMON. 

wild  in  the  woods  to  the  size  of  a  large  apple-tree ; 
but  when  cultivated,  is  never  allowed  to  grow 
wiore  than  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height,  each  plant 
standing  separate.  The  leaf  is  something  like 
that  of  the  laurel  in  shape,  but  of  a  lighter  color : 
when  it  first  shoots  out  it  is  red,  and  changes  grad- 
ually to  green.  It  is  now  out  of  blossom  ;  but  I 
am  told  that  the  flower  is  white,  and  appears, 
when  in  full  bloom,  to  cover  the  garden.  After 
hearing  so  much  of  the  spicy  gales  from  this  isl- 
and, I  was  much  disappointed  at  not  being  able 
to  discover  any  scent,  at  least  from  the  plants,  in 
passing  through  the  gardens  :  there  is  a  very  fra- 
grant-smelling flower  growing  under  them,  which 
at  first  led  us  into  the  belief  that  we  smelt  the 
cinnamon,  but  we  were  soon  undeceived.  On 
pulling  off  a  leaf  or  a  twig,  one  perceives  the  spi- 
cy odor  very  strongly  ;  but  1  was  surprised  to  hear 
that  the  flower  has  little  or  none.  As  cinnamon 
forms  the  only  considerable  export  in  Ceylon,  it 
is  of  course  preserved  with  great  care :  by  the 
old  Dutch  law,  the  penalty  for  cutting  a  branch, 
was  no  less  than  the  loss  of  a  hand  ;  at  present,  a 
fine  expiates  the  same  offence,  The  neighbor- 
hood of  Colombo  is  particularly  favorable  to  its 
growth,  being  well  sheltered,  with  a  high  equa- 
ble temperature ;  and  as  showers  fall  very  fre- 
quently, though  a  whole  day's  heavy  rain  is  un- 
common, the  ground  is  never  parched/ 

F.  How,  papa,  is  the  cinnamon  prepared  ? 

Mr.  E.  Bishop  Heber  has  anticipated  your 
question.  He  says,  '  The  manager  of  the  cinna- 
mon-gardens good-naturedly  sent  some  of  the  cin- 
namon-peelers to  our  bungalows,  that  we  might 


MYRRH.  239 

see  the  way  in  which  the  spice  is  prepared.  They 
brought  with  them  branches  of  about  three  feet* 
in  length,  of  which  they  scraped  off  the  rough 
bark  with  knives,  and  then,  with  a  peculiar  sha- 
ped instrument,  stripped  off  the  inner  rind  in 
long  slips  ;  these  are  tied  up  in  bundles,  and  put 
to  dry  in  the  sun,  and  the  wood  is  sold  for  fuel. 
In  the  regular  preparation,  however,  the  outer 
bark  is  not  scraped  off;  but  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation which  the  strips  undergo,  when  tied 
up  in  large  quantities,  removes  the  coarse  parts/ 
In  South  America,  cinnamon  is  used  for  its  medi- 
cinal properties ;  92,000  pounds  are  said  to  be 
consumed  annually  by  the  slaves  in  the  mines  of 
that  country.  Each  receives  daily  a  certain  quan- 
tity, cut  into  pieces  an  inch  long,  which  he  eats 
as  a  preservative  against  the  noxious  effluvia  of 
the  mines. 

F.  What  is  myrrh,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  It  is  a  white  gum,  issuing  from  the 
trunks  and  larger  branches  of  a  thorny  tree,  re- 
sembling the  acacia,  growing  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
and  Abyssinia.  Its  taste  is  extremely  bitter ;  but 
its  smell,  though  strong,  is  agreeable ;  and  it  en- 
tered into  the  composition  of  the  most  costly  oint- 
ments among  the  ancients.  We  read,  in  the  book 
of  Exodus,  of  'pure  myrrh  ; '  by  which  is  meant 
the  finest  and  most  excellent  kind,  called  also 
stacte,  which  issues  from  the  bark  without  incis- 
ion. It  is  said  by  Mark,  that  they  gave  Christ 
to  drink,  '  wine  mingled  with  myrrh,  but  he  re- 
ceived it  not; '  because  it  appears  that  this  drink 
produced  mental  agitation.  Through  motives  of 
humanity,  such  draughts  were  usually  adminis- 


240  SHITTIM-WOOD. 

tered  to  those  who  were  about  to  endure  a  pain- 
ful death ;  but  Jesus  rejected  such  a  mitigation 
of  his  sufferings,  and  therefore,  after  tasting  it, 
refused  the  cup. 

E.  Can  you  describe  to  us  what  shittim-wood 
was,  mamma  ? 

Mrs.  E.  St.  Jerome  says  that  it  grows  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  and  is  like  white  thorn  as  to 
its  color  and  leaves ;  but  the  tree  is  so  large  as 
to  furnish  very  long  planks.  The  wood  is  hard, 
tough,  and  extremely  beautiful.  It  is  thought  he 
means  the  black  acacia,  because  that  is  the  most 
common  tree  in  the  part  of  the  earth  to  which 
he  refers.  It  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  mulberry 
tree.  The  spreading  branches  and  larger  limbs 
are  armed  with  thorns,  which  grow  three  togeth- 
er. The  bark  is  rough,  and  the  leaves  are  oblong, 
standing  opposite  each  other.  The  flowers,  though 
somewhat  white,  are  generally  of  a  bright  yellow  ; 
and  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  bean,  is  contain- 
ed in  pods,  like  those  of  the  lupin.  Another  tree 
is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  to  which  no  allusion 
has  yet  been  made.  In  our  ungenial  climate,  the 
myrtle  is  a  lowly  shrub ;  but,  in  more  favorable 
countries,  it  sometimes  grows  to  a  small  tree.  It 
has  a  hard,  woody  root,  that  sends  forth  a  great 
number  of  small  flexible  branches,  furnished  with 
leaves  like  those  of  box,  but  much  smaller  and 
more  pointed  ;  they  are  soft  to  the  touch,  shining, 
smooth,  of  a  beautiful  green,  and  have  a  sweet 
smell.  The  flowers  grow  among  the  leaves,  and 
consist  of  five  white  petals,  disposed  in  the  form 
of  a  rose  :  they  have  an  agreeable  perfume,  and 
ornamental  appearance.  They  are  succeeded  by 


THE    MYRTLE.  241 

an  oval,  oblong  berry,  adorned  with  a  sort  of 
crown,  divided  into  three  cells,  which  contain  the 
seed.  Thus  we  read,  '  I  will  plant  in  the  wil- 
derness, the  cedar  and  the  shittah-tree,  and  the 
myrtle  and  the  oil-tree ; '  that  is,  '  I  will  adorn  the 
dreary  and  barren  wilderness  with  trees  famed  for 
their  stature,  and  the  grandeur  of  their  appear- 
ance, the  beauty  of  their  form,  and  the  fragrance 
of  their  odor.'  Savary  describes  a  scene  at  the 
end  of  the  forest  of  Platanea,  and  says,  '  Myr- 
tles, intermixed  with  laurel-roses,  grow  in  the 
valleys  to  the  height  of  ten  feet.  Their  snow- 
white  flowers,  bordered  within  with  a  purple  edg- 
ing, appear  to  peculiar  advantage  under  the  ver- 
dant foliage.  Each  myrtle  is  loaded  with  them ; 
and  they  emit  perfumes  more  exquisite  than  the 
rose  itself/ 

Mr.  E.  As  your  questions,  my  dear  children, 
seem  to  be  exhausted,  I  will  allude  to  the  conse- 
cration of  groves  to  various  idols.  This  custom 
appears  to  have  arisen  from  the  idea  that  shade 
and  solitude  were  adapted  to  inspire  the  worship- 
pers with  a  solemn  and  superstitious  dread  of  those 
divinities  which  they  were  taught  to  believe  were 
present  in  such  spots.  '  If  you  find/  says  Sene- 
ca, '  a  grove  thick  set  with  ancient  oaks,  that 
have  shot  up  to  a  vast  height,  the  tallness  of  the 
wood,  the  retirement  of  the  place,  and  the  pleas- 
antness of  the  shade,  immediately  make  you  think 
it  to  be  the  residence  of  some  god.'  To  this  Ho- 
sea  refers,  when  he  says,  '  They  sacrifice  upon 
the  tops  of  the  mountains,  and  burn  incense  upon 
the  hills,  under  oaks,  and  poplars,  and  elms,  be- 
cause the  shadow  is  good/  Isaiah's  declaration, 
20* 


242       THE  WORSHIP  OF  TREES. 

c  They  that  sanctify  themselves,  and  purify  them- 
selves, in  the  gardens,  behind  one  tree  in  the 
midst/  may  also  be  easily  explained.  For  not  only 
sacred  groves  in  general,  but  the  centres  of  such 
groves  in  particular,  were  made  use  of  for  tem- 
ples, by  the  first  and  most  ancient  heathens.  In- 
deed, some  one  tree  in  the  centre  of  each  grove 
was  usually  had  in  special  veneration.  As  groves 
were  thus  the  scenes  of  idolatrous  rites,  the  Jew- 
ish people  receive  the  command,  '  Thou  shalt  not 
plant  thee  a  grove  of  any  trees,  near  unto  the  al- 
tar of  the  Lord  thy  God  ; '  but  from  their  prone- 
ness  to  imitate  the  customs  of  surrounding  na- 
tions, they  became  guilty  of  sacrificing  in  high 
places,  and  in  consecrated  groves  ;  and  a  king 
carried  his  impiety  so  far  as  to  plant  one  of  them 
at  Jerusalem.  In  opposition  to  the  feeling  thus 
displayed,  the  Israelites  were  enjoined  to  cut 
down  such  groves  as  had  been  polluted  by  the 
idolatrous  Canaanites  ;  and  the  promptness  with 
which  Josiah  destroyed  those  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  which  had  been  consecrated  to  Astaroth, 
Chemosh,  and  Milcorn,  shows  the  freedom  of  his 
mind  from  debasing  superstition,  and  the  strength 
of  his  faith  in  the  living  God.  « 

E.  Oh,  papa,  how  sad  it  is  that  they  are  so  su- 
perstitious ! 

Mrs.  E.  And  still  worse  that  so  many  resem- 
ble them.  When,  for  instance,  a  new  idol  was 
to  be  manufactured  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  a 
royal  and  priestly  procession  went  forth,  with  great 
ceremony  to  the  destined  tree  ;  where  the  king 
himself,  with  a  stone  axe,  laid  the  first  stroke  to 
the  root ;  and,  after  it  had  been  felled,  a  man  or 


MAKING    OF    AN    IDOL.  243 

a  hog  was  butchered,  and  buried  on  the  spot 
where  it  had  grown.  The  principal  god  of  the 
late  Tamehameha  was  a  huge,  unsightly  block 
(for  there  were  no  '  cunning  workmen  '  to  work 
'  graven  images,')  yet,  so  soon  as  this  scaramouch, 
fantastically  dressed  with  feathers  and  flowers, 
was  heaved  upon  a  man's  shoulders  to  be  carried 
to  or  from  any  particular  marae,  all  the  people  on 
the  way  were  obliged  to  uncover  their  persons, 
and  prostrate  themselves  on  the  ground.  Karai- 
pahua,  however,  was  the  most  formidable  of  their 
deities,  and  the  fittest  symbol  of  that  most  malig- 
nant being,  '  the  god  of  this  world/  whom  they 
all  represented.  This  idol  was  more  elaborate- 
ly shapen  and  curiously  adorned  than  most  of  his 
kindred.  It  was  carved  out  of  a  tree  which  grew 
in  the  island  of  Morokai,  the  wood  of  which  was 
said  to  be  so  dreadfully  deleterious,  that  a  little 
of  it,  scraped  into  a  mess  of  food,  would  turn  it 
into  deadly  poison.  Even  the  chips  of  the  raw 
material  of  this  divinity,  during  the  felling  of  the 
tree,  were  so  venomous  that  they  killed  several 
persons  who  happened  to  be  hit  by  them  as  they 
flew  off  at  the  blows  of  the  axe,  so  that  the  work- 
men were  obliged  to  cover  themselves,  from  head 
to  foot,  till  they  had  brought  this  upas  to  the 
ground.  Perhaps,  however,  the  baneful  qualities 
attributed  to  this  sacred  wood  were  as  fabulous  as 
all  the  other  horrors  ascribed  to  the  image  which 
they  sculptured  out  of  it. 

Mr.  E.  Referring  to  the  island  of  Huahine,. 
Messrs.  Tyerman  and  Bennet  say,  '  We  landed 
to  examine  a  famous  marae,  and  also  a  far  more 
famous  tree,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 


-244  THE    MARAE. 

extraordinary  native  production  of  these  islands  ;; 
indeed  we  gazed  upon  it  with  overwhelming  as- 
tonishment. This  tree  is  called  aoa  by  the  na- 
tives. The  trunk  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of 
stems  grown  together,  and  exhibiting  a  most  fan- 
tastical appearance  from  the  numerous  grooves,, 
which  run  vertically  up  the  bole,  and  are  of  such 
depth  that  a  transverse  section  would  rudely  re- 
semble the  axle  and  spoke  of  a  wheel  without  a 
rim.  The  girth  near  the  foot,  is  seventy  feeU 
From  the  height  of  eight  feet,  and  onward  to  for- 
ty, immense  branches  proceed,  in  nearly  horizon- 
tal lines,  on  every  hand  ;  from  which  perpendic- 
ular shoots  tend  downward,  till  they  reach  the 
ground,  take  root,  and  become  columns  of  the 
*  pillared  shade.'  More  than  forty  of  these  we 
counted,  standing  like  a  family  of  earth-born  gi- 
ants about  their  enormous  parent.  A  circle,  drawn 
all  round  these  auxiliary  stems,  measured  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  in  circumference ; 
while  a  circle,  embracing  the  utmost  verge  of 
their  lateral  ramifications  was  not  less  than  four 
hundred  and  twenty  feet.  The  upper  stories  (if 
we  may  so  call  them)  of  this  multiform  tree,  pre- 
sented yet  more  singular  combinations  of  inter- 
secting and  intertwisting  boughs,  like  Gothic 
arches,  oriels,  and  colonnades,  propped,  as  by 
magic,  in  mid-air.  These  were  occasionally  mas- 
sy or  light,  and  everywhere  richly  embellished 
with  foliage,  through  which  the  flickering  sun- 
shine gleamed  in  long  rays,  that  lost  themselves 
in  the  immensity  of  the  interior  labyrinth,  or  danc- 
ed in  bright  spots  upon  the  ground,  biack  with 
the  shadows  of  hundreds  of  branches,  rising,  tier 


THE  MA'RAE.  245 

above  tier,  and  spreading,  range  beyond  range, 
aloft  and  around.  The  height  of  this  tree  (itself 
a  forest)  cannot  be  less  than  eighty  feet/ 

E.  Oh,  what  a  giant !  Was  any  thing  idola- 
trous done  there,  papa? 

Mr.  E.  Yes,  there  was.  Not  far  from  its  site 
there  is  a  Christian  chapel,  and  a  pagan  marae 
hard  by,  where  the  sovereigns  of  Huahine  were 
buried,  —  and  where,  indeed,  they  lay  in  more 
than  oriental  state,  each  one  resting  in  his  bed, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sacred  Mountain,  beneath  the 
umbrage  of  the  magnificent  aoa,  and  near  the 
beach  forever  washed  by  waters  that  roll  round 
the  world,  and  spread  themselves  here  after  visit* 
ing  every  other  shore  between  the  poles.  The 
great  marae  itself  was  dedicated  to  Tani,  the  fa- 
ther of  the  gods  here ;  but  the  whole  ground  ad- 
jacent was  marked  with  the  vestiges  of  smaller 
maraes  —  private  places  for  worship,  and  family 
interment  —  while  this  was  the  capital  of  the  isl- 
and, and  the  head-quarters  of  royalty  and  idola- 
try. 

On  the  limbs  of  the  tree  already  described, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  thousands  of  hu- 
man sacrifices  have  been  hung.  One  low  • 
bough,  of  great  length  and  bulk,  was  pointed 
out  as  having  the  principal  gibbet  for  such  vic- 
tims, century  after  century.  The  tree  itself  was 
sacred  to  Tani ;  but  he  has  been  expelled  hence  ; 
and  for  ages  to  come,  under  the  shadow  of  this 
prodigy  of  vegetation,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  '  in- 
cense and  a  pure  offering '  —  the  incense  of 
prayer,  and  the  pure  offering  of  bodies,  presented 
as  ( living  sacrifices J  —  will  continue  to  be  made 


246  HAPPY    CHANGE. 

here  to  the  true  God,  by  more  of  his  spiritual  wor- 
shippers than  Satan  had  of  his  deluded  votaries 
in  all  the  times  gone  by. 

F.  I  hope  so,  too.  But,  Emma,  papa  and 
mamma  are  going  :  won't  you  thank  them  for  so 
many  interesting  things? 

E.  Oh,  yes,  Frederick!  —  we  will  both  thank 
them  again  and  again  ! 


AN  AUTUMNAL  MORNING. 

'  How  gorgeous  are  our  woods  at  this  season  I ' 
said  Mr.  Elwood  ;  c  their  majesty  and  sublimity 
strike  and  charm  the  eye,  and  vividly  impress 
the  mind.  But  they  awaken  a  lively  interest  in 
my  bosom  when  spring  comes,  and  they  appear 
in  the  delicacy  of  their  pride  ;  in  summer,  when 
they  are  shadowy  and  aromatic ;  in  winter,  when, 
robbed  of  their  foliage,  they  reveal  the  under- 
work and  tracery  of  their  branches  ;  no  less  than 
in  autumn,  when  arrayed,  like  the  sun  as  he  is 
about  to  sink  below  the  horizon,  in  their  last 
splendor/ 

'  Your  feelings  are  natural,  my  dear/  said  Mrs. 
Elwood;  '  for,  in  addition  to  the  native  beauty 
of  trees  and  woods,  much  that  is  interesting  is 
associated  with  them.  Xerxes,  in  the  midst  of 
his  most  ambitious  enterprize,  stopped  his  im- 
mense army  to  contemplate  the  beauty  of  a  tree. 
Cicero  was  accustomed  to  refresh  and  invigorate 


THE    MERRY    GREENWOOD.  247 

3iis  spirits  in  a  grove  of  palm-trees ;  and  in  simi- 
lar circumstances,  Thucydides  is  said  to  have 
composed  his  noble  histories.  In  the  merry 
greenwood  '  the  mind  of  the  English  poet  first 
awoke  to  a  sense  of  beauty :  the  soft  bright  sward, 
enamelled  with  wild  flowers  —  the  up-sparkling 
well-spring,  making  music  in  its  joyous  course  — 
the  rich  melody  of  our  native  wild  birds  —  the 
lordly  stag  bounding  along  like  a  vision  —  the 
sun-light  glancing  from  hill  to  valley,  gilding  the 
dark  masses  of  foliage  with  momentary  splendor 
—  the  giant  oak,  stretching  his  hundred  arms  in 
century-hallowed  majesty,  the  proud  type  of  our 
land — these  we're  the  sources  from  whence  our 
early  poets  drank  inspiration  ;  but  lastly,  and 
above  all,  here  was  made  the  first  stand  for  liber- 
ty.' 

Mr.  E.  Forests  must  have  been  the  abodes  of 
European  tribes,  when  they  lived  upon  acorns. 
Even  now,  the  palm-forests  afford  shelter  to  the 
nations  of  Africa.  Hunting  was  the  natural  oc- 
cupations of  these  people  ;  but,  at  the  dawn  of 
civilization,  the  tribes  of  hunters,  having  more 
vigorous  minds  and  bodies  from  their  dangers 
and  toils,  must  have  more  rapidly  improved,  and 
must  have  built  houses  and  towns  at  a  much  ear- 
lier period.  The  forests  would  furnish  them  with 
the  materials  and  the  model  of  their  architecture. 
Trunks  of  trees,  supporting  a  verdant  roof,  sug- 
gested the  first  idea  of  Grecian  and  Indian  col- 
onnades ;  whilst  Chinese  architecture  consists 
only  of  tents  imitated  in  wood  and  stone ;  and,  in 
the  Gothic,  are  recognized  the  images  of  gloomy 
caverns,  and  steep  rocks. 


248  FORESTS. 

It  is  probable,  too,  that,  in  very  early  times,  a 
great  part  of  Britain  was  covered  with  forests ; 
but,  as  the  arts  of  life  advanced,  the  people  per- 
mitted the  wolves  and  bears  to  occupy  them,  as- 
sociated together  in  towns,  and  cultivated  the 
open  country.  Only  about  eleven,  however,  are 
said  to  have  preserved  their  rights.  '  It  is  im- 
possible, '  says  Mr.  Nicholas,  '  to  imagine,  in  the 
wildest  and. most  picturesque  walks  of  nature,  a 
sight  more  sublime  and  majestic,  or  which  can 
more  forcibly  challenge  the  admiration  of  the 
traveller,  than  a  New  Zealand  forest.  And  Mr. 
Ellis,  in  describing  the  forest  he  visited,  remarks, 
'  The  earth  was  completely  covered  with  thick- 
spreading,  and  forked  roots,  brambles,  and  creep- 
ing plants,  overgrown  with  moss,  and  interwoven 
so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  uneven  matting,  which 
rendered  travelling  exceedingly  difficult.  The 
underwood  was  in  many  parts  thick,  and  the 
trunks  of  the  lofty  trees  rose  like  clusters  of  pil- 
lars, supporting  the  canopy  of  interwoven  boughs 
and  verdant  foliage,  through  which  the  sun's  rays 
seldom  penetrated.  There  were  no  trodden  paths, 
and  the  wild  and  dreary  solitude  of  the  place  was 
only  broken  by  the  voice  of  some  lonely  bird 
which  chirped  among  the  branches^of  the  bushes, 
or,  startled  by  our  intrusion  on  its  retirement, 
darted  across  our  path.  A  sensation  of  solemnity 
and  awe  involuntarily  arose  in  the  rnind,  while 
contemplating  a  scene  of  such  peculiar  character, 
so  unlike  the  ordinary  haunts  of  men,  and  so 
adapted,  from  the  silent  grandeur  of  his  works, 
to  elevate  the  soul  with  the  sublimest  conceptions 
of  the  Almighty.  I  was  remarkably  struck  with 


FORESTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES      249 

the  gigantic  size  of  many  of  the  trees,  some  of 
which  appeared  to  rise  nearly  one  hundred  feet, 
without  a  branch,  while  two  men,  with  extended 
arms,  could  not  clasp  their  trunks.  ' 

Mrs.  E.  In  the  forests  of  the  United  States, 
the  trees  most  universally  diffused  are  the  wil- 
low-leafed oak,  which  grows  in  the  marshes ;  the 
chestnut  oak,  which,  in  the  southern  states,  rises 
to  a  prodigious  size,  and  is  as  much  esteemed  for 
its  nuts  as  its  wood  ;  and  the  white,  red,  and 
black  oak.  The  walnut,  the  chestnut,  and  the 
elm  of  Europe,  also,  abound  almost  as  much  as 
the  oak.  The  tulip-tree,  and  the  sassafras  — 
more  sensible  to  cold  than  these  others,  are  stunt- 
ed shrubs  at  the  confines  of  Canada  —  assume 
the  character  of  trees  in  the  middle  states  ;  but 
upon  the  hot  banks  of  the  Alatamaha,  they  reach 
their  full  size,  and  display  all  their  beauty  and 
grandeur.  The  amber-tree,  which  yields  an 
odorous  gum,  with  many  others,  are  found  grow- 
ing in  every  place  where  the  soil  suits  them.  It  is 
in  Virginia,  and  in  the  southern  and  south-west- 
ern states,  that  the  American  Flora  displays  its 
wonders,  and  the  savannas  wear  their  perpetual 
verdure.  It  is  there  that  the  magnificence  of  the 
primitive  forests,  and  the  exuberant  vegetation  of 
the  marshes,  captivate  the  senses  by  the  charms  of 
form,  color,  and  perfume.  If  we  pass  along  the 
shores  of  Carolina;  Georgia,  and  Florida,  groves 
in  uninterrupted  succession  seem  to  float  upon  the 
waters  By  the  side  of  the  pine  is  seen  the  pale- 
tuvier,  the  only  shrub  which  thrives  in  salt-wa- 
ter —  the  magnificent  lobelia  cardinalis,  and  the 
odoriferous  pancratium  of  Carolina,  with  its  snow- 
21 


250  FORESTS    OP    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

white  flowers.  The  land  to  which  the  tide  reach- 
es are  distinguished  from  the  lands  which  remain 
dry,]by  the  moving  and  compressed  stalks  of  the 
arundo  gigantea,  by  the  light  foliage  of  other 
plants  and  trees,  and  by  the  white  cedar,  which, 
perhaps,  of  all  the  vegetable  productions  of  Amer- 
ica, presents  the  most  singular  aspect.  Its  trunk, 
where  it  issues  from  the  ground,  is  composed  of 
four  or  five  enormous  parts,  which,  uniting  at  the 
height  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  form  a  sort  of  open 
vault,  from  the  summit  of  which  rises  a  single 
straight  stem  of  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height, 
withoutta  branch,  but  terminating  in  a  flat  cano- 
py, shaped  like  a  parasol,  garnished  with  leaves, 
curiously  figured,  and  of  the  most  delicate  green. 
The  crane  and  the  eagle  fix  their  nests  on  this 
aerial  platform  ;  and  the  paroquets,  while  leaping 
about,  are  attracted  to  it  by  the  oily  seeds  enclos- 
ed in  the  cones  suspended  from  the  branches. 
In  the  natural  labyrinths  which  occur  in  these 
marshy  forests,  the  traveller  sometimes  discovers 
small  lakes  and  open  lawns,  which  would  present 
most  seductive  retreats,  if  the  unhealthy  exhala- 
tions of  autumn  permitted  him  to  inhabit  them. 
Here  he  walks  under  a  vaulted  roof  of  smilax  and 
wild  vines,  among  creeping  lianas,  which  invest 
his  feet  with  their  flowers  :  but  the  soil  trembles 
under  him,  clouds  of  annoying  insects  hover 
around,  monstrous  bats  overshadow  him  with 
their  hideous  wings,  the  rattle-snake  musters  his 
scaly  terrors,  while  the  wolf,  the  carcajou,  and 
the  tiger-cat  fill  the  air  with  their  savage  and 
discordant  cries. 


FORESTS    OF    AMERICA.  251 

E.  Oh,  dear,  mamma  !  —  it  is  beautiful,  and 
yet  terrible.  I  could  not  be  pleased,  I  am*sure, 
delightful  as  the  trees  and  flowers  are,  where 
there  is  so  much  that  would  frighten  me.  Are 
there  any  other  remarkable  forests  in  that  coun- 
try? 

Mrs.  E.  Those  parts  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  which  are  elevated  three  or  four 
hundred  feet,  and  lie  along  deeply  depressed  beds 
of  rivers,  are  clothed  in  some  of  the  richest  for- 
ests of  the  world.  The  Ohio  flows  under  the 
shade  of  the  plane  and  the  tulip-tree,  like  a  canal 
dug  in  a  nobleman's  park  ;  while  the  leaves, 
extending  from  tree  to  tree,  form  graceful  arches 
of  flowers  and  foliage  over  branches  of  the  river. 
Passing  to  the  south,  the  wild  orange-tree  mixes 
with  the  odoriferous  and  the  common  laurel. 
The  straight  silvery  column  of  the  papaw-fig, 
which  rises  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet,  and  is 
crowned  with  a  canopy  of  large,  indented  leaves, 
forms  one  of  the  most  striking  ornaments  of  this 
enchanting  scene.  Above  all  these,  towers  the 
majestic  magnolia,  which  shoots  up  to  the  height 
of  more  than  one  hundred  feet.  Its  trunk,  per- 
fectly straight,  is  surmounted  with  a  thick  and 
expanded  head,  the  pale  green  foliage  of  which 
affects  a  conical  figure.  From  the  centre  of  the 
flowery  crown,  which  terminates  its  branches,  a 
flower  of  the  purest  white  rises,  having  the  form 
of  a  rose,  and  to  which  succeeds  a  crimson  cone. 
This,  in  opening,  exhibits  rounded  seeds  of  the 
finest  coral  red,  suspended  by  delicate  threads 
six  inches  long.  Thus,  by  its  flowers,  its  fruits, 
and  its  gigantic  size,  the  magnolia  surpasses  all 
its  rivals  of  the  forest.  The  forest  scenery  of 


252  THE    MAGNOLIA. 

America  is  well  adapted  to  excite  poetic  and 
devotional  feeling.  They  are  admirably  blended 
in  a  fragment  I  will  read  you  from  the  pen  of  a 
native  of  that  country. 

*  Father !  thy  hand 

Hath  reared  these  venerable  columns !   Thou 
Didst  weave  this  verdant  roof.    Thou  "didst  look  down 
Upon  the  naked  earth,  and  forthwith  rose 
All  these  fair  ranks  of  trees.     They  in  thy  sun 
Budded ;  and  shook  their  green  leaves  in  thy  breeze  ; 
And  shot  towards  heaven.     The  century-living  crow, 
Whose  birth  was  in  their  tops,  grew  old  and  died 
Among  their  branches,  till  at  last  they  stood, 
As  now  they  stand,  massive,  and  tall,  and  dark, 
Fit  shrine  for  humble  worshipper  to  hold 
Communion  with  his  Maker.1 

F.    How  grand  !  —  how  grand  ! 
Mrs.  E.  The  poet  describes,  however,  another 
scene  which  has  its  charms. 

c  Come  when  the  rains 

Have  glazed  the  snow,  and  clothed  the  trees  with  ice, 
While  the  slant  sun  of  February  pours 
Into  the  bowers  a  flood  of  light.    Approach ! 
The  incrusted  surface  shall  upbear  thy  steps  ; 
And  the  broad  arching  portals  of  the  grove 
Welcome  thy  entering.    Look  !    the  massy  trunks 
Are  cased  in  the  pure  crystal ;  each  light  spray, 
Nodding  and  tinkling  in  the  breath  of  heaven, 
Is  studded  with  its  trembling  water-drops, 
That  stream  with  rainbow  radiance  as  they  move. 
But  round  the  parent  stem  the  long  low  boughs 
Bend  in  a  glittering  ring,  and  arbors  hide 
The  grassy  floor.' 

And  then,  having  compared  it  to  a  spacious  cav- 
ern, '  where  the  gems  grow,'  and  to  '  the  vast 
hall  of  a  fairy  palace/  he  adds:  — 

«  All,  all  is  light  — 

Light  without  shade.     But  all  shall  pass  away 
With  the  next  sun.     From  numberless  vast  trunks, 
Loosened,  the  crashing  ice  shall  make  a  sound 
Like  the  far  roar  of  rivers,  and  the  eve 
Shall  close  o'er  the  brown  woods,  as  it  was  wont.' 


FORESTS    OF    BRAZIL.  253 

Mr.  E.  In  Brazil,  vegetation  is  exuberant. 
But  Dr.  Walsh  shall  tell  his  own  tale.  '  I  now  for 
the  first  time  entered  the  primeval  woods  of 
America,  which  remain  precisely  in  the  state  they 
were  left  by  the  receding  waters  of  the  flood. 
I  had  heard  much  of  the  grandeur  and  sublimity 
of  an  American  forest ;  but  the  reality  exceeded 
my  conception.  The  road,  or  rather  path,  wind- 
ed along  the  edge  of  deep  valleys  and  ravines, 
from  the  bottom  of  which  trees  shot  up  to  a  most 
extraordinary  height ;  and  some  of  them  could 
not  be  less  than  400  feet. 

'  There  is  a  continued  contest  for  light  and 
air  in  the  vegetable  world  ;  and,  when  numbers 
of  trees  are  together,  they  all  shoot  up  with  emu- 
lation to  overtop  their  neighbors ;  and,  when  they 
have  attained  that  eminence,  many  of  them  begin 
then,  and  not  till  then,  to  send  out  lateral  branch- 
es. In  this  region,  where  the  vital  powers  of 
plants  are  so  strong,  the  contest  is  carried  on 
with  wonderful  vigor,  and  the  sap  ascends  to  an 
incredible  distance  from  the  root.  In  some 
places,  where,  either  by  design  or  accident,  the 
wood  had  been  burnt  down,  an  insulated  tree, 
perhaps,  escaped,  and  stood  by  itself,  in  solitary 
magnificence  at  the  bottom  of  a  glen  :  it  was  then 
that  its  gigantic  proportions,  and  the  curious 
structure  that  accident  had  given  to  the  process 
of  vegetation,  were  conspicuous. 

'  I  had  the  curiosity  to  leave  the  path,  and  ride 
up  to  one  of  these  solitary  giants,  to  contemplate 
it  more  closely.  The  stem  had  run  up  without 
putting  out  a  single  lateral  shoot,  till  it  had 
ascended  above  its  fellows  ;  and  then  it  pushed 
21* 


254  FORESTS    OF    BRAZIL. 

them  out  horizontally,  forming  a  canopy  of 
branches  over  their  heads  ;  arid,  when  they  were 
burnt  away,  the  canopy  still  remained,  but  at 
such  a  height  that  I  could  but  indistinctly  see 
that  part  of  the  stem  from  which  the  branches 
issued ;  and  they  looked  like  a  little  forest  sus- 
pended in  the  air.' 

E.  How  curious !  Did  Dr.  Walsh  see  any 
others  ? 

Mrs.  E.  '  Sometimes  a  tall  tree  had  lost  its 
branches,  from  fire  or  some  other  cause,  and  the 
immense  stem  was  covered  with  climbing  plants, 
which  had  shot  up  from  the  ground,  till  they  had 
surmounted  its  summit,  and  terminated  in  a  point 
at  top  ;  and  the  whole  slender  cone  of  vegetation 
resembled  a  very  tall  cypress  —  the  long  pole, 
that  supported  so  many  plants,  being  itself  dead 
and  sapless. 

'  Some  of  these  creepers  had  grown  up  with  a 
young  tree,  increasing  in  size  along  with  it,  till 
the  two  stems  were  of  an  equal  thickness  —  the 
tendrils  of  the  former  twining  round  the  neck  of 
its  supporter,  by  a  band  as  dense  as  the  cap  of 
the  cross-trees  of  a  man  of  war  ;  and  then  shoot- 
ing above  it,  like  the  top-mast  from  the  main- 
mast. 

'  When  we  arrived  at  the  summit  of  the  ridge, 
we  remarked  another  circumstance  in  the  prolific 
soil  of  this  country.  At  the  place  where  vegeta- 
tion ends,  in  other  regions,  it  was  here  in  its 
greatest  luxuriance.  This  vast  ridge,  I  found, 
was  not  a  chain  of  rock,  but  enormous  mounds 
of  clay,  having  a  stratum  of  vegetable  soil  a 
thousand  feet  in  depth.  It  is  only  necessary, 


FORESTS    OP    BRAZIL.  255 

therefore,  to  burn  down  the  woods  which  encum- 
ber the  ground,  and  the  sloping  surface  is  every 
where  convertible  into  the  richest  gardens.  We 
found  the  very  summit  treated  in  this  manner. 
The  Marquez  de  S.  Joaco  Marcos,  who  ownn 
large  estates  on  these  mountains,  has  every  where 
begun  to  cultivate  their  sides.  We  crossed  an 
extensive  patch,  of  many  hundred  acres,  on  the 
highest  point,  just  opened  in  this  way  ;  and  we 
emerged,  from  a  primeval  forest,  into  a  rich  plan- 
tation on  the  very  top  of  the  mountain.  Much  of 
the  burnt  timber  was  yet  encumbering  the 
ground ;  but,  between  the  truuks  which  lay  pros- 
trate, rich  plantations  of  mandioca,  milho,  and 
cana,  were  shooting  up  their  vivid  green  stems. 
One  of  these  newly  planted  tracts  had  a  singular 
appearance.  It  was  a  deep  circular  cavity,  like 
the  crater  of  a  volcano  :  last  year  it  was  a  mass 
of  enormous  timber,  shooting  up  from  the  bottom, 
till  the  tops  of  the  trees  were  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  road.  It  was  now  a  huge  cup  of  rich 
sugar-cane.  The  constant  humidity  of  this  ele- 
vated region  gives  a  security  to  the  vegetation  of 
crops,  which  they  have  not  always  below,  where 
they  sometimes  fail,  and  did  so  this  year,  for  want 
of  rain.' 

F.  And  is  not  there  something  more  in  the 
volume  that  will  please  us  ? 

Mrs.  E.  Oh,  yes,  there  is  much.  Here  is 
another  extract :  — '  I  accompanied  Mr.  Watson 
to  see  the  manner  of  clearing  woods  for  planta- 
tions of  milho,  or  other  produce.  The  woods  of 
these  mountains  are  still  in  their  primitive  state, 
gigantic  and  dense,  and  the  only  mode  hitherto 
tried  is  fire.  We  passed  through  a  wild  glen, 


256  CLEARING    OP    WOO0. 

which  opened  into  a  beautiful  vale,  with  gentle 
slopes  up  the  sides  of  the  hills  that  surrounded 
it ;  we  suddenly  came  out,  and,  on  emerging  from 
a  dark  avenue  of  trees,  we  saw  the  whole  extent 
of  the  vale,  glowing  red,  like  a  vast  furnace,  of 
two  or  three  miles  in  circumference.  The  indis- 
tinct crackling  and  roaring  of  the  fire  was  con- 
stantly interrupted  by  loud  explosions,  and  dis- 
charges of  smoke,  which  I  thought  proceeded 
from  blasting  rocks  or  trees  with  gunpowder,  but 
it  arose  from  a  different  cause.  The  woods 
abounded  with  bamboos  of  an  immense  size, 
called  tacwara.  As  the  fire  seized  these  enor- 
mous tubes,  the  heated  air  within  expanded,  arid 
every  joint  in  succession  burst  open,  with  a  noise 
as  loud  as  the  discharge  of  a  musket.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  flame  is  followed  by  negroes,  with 
hoes  in  their  hands,  who  strike  the  ashes,  when 
sufficiently  cool,  into  the  soil,  and  immediately 
drop  the  grain  ;  and,  so  rapid  is  vegetation,  when 
quickened  by  this  process,  that  young  blades  of 
green  corn  are  seen  shooting  up  among  the  black 
and  smoking  stumps  in  one  place,  while  the  fire 
is  raging  in  another.' 

And  now,  my  dears,  we  have  passed  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  grade  of  vegetation.  At  a 
future  time,  mamma  and  I  will  be  happy  to  direct 
you  in  other  and  more  profound  researches. 

E.  I  am  sorry  —  I   am    quite  sorry,  mamma, 
that  we  have  gone  through  the  vegetable  world  sa 
soon  ;  I  wish  we  had  to  begin  again. 

F.  I  will  tell  you,  Emma,  how  we  can  man- 
age.    We  shall  often  find  a  plant  which  we  donrt 


CLEARING    OF    WOOD.  257 

know,  or  something  about  which  we  want  to  hear 
more  ;  and  then  we  know  to  whom  we  can  go  — 
don't  we,  love  ? 

E.  Oh,  yes  !  And  perhaps  papa  will  think  of 
something  else  for  us  while  we  learn  a  little  now 
and  then. 

Mrs.  E.  Papa  has  already  done  so,  dear.  Shall 
I  tell  you  what  it  is  ?  —  I  see  your  anxiety.  He 
means  to  give  you  some  account  of  the  treasures 
of  the  earth. 

E.  Oh,  I'm  delighted  —  I'm  delighted  !  Only 
think,  Frederick  — THE  TREASURES  OF  THE 

EARTH  ! THE    TREASURES    OF    THE    EARTH  ! 


259 


WORKS    IN    PRESS. 

I. 

NATURE  IN  ART,  AND  SCIENCE  AN- 
TICIPATED.    BY  CHARLES  WILLIAMS. 

II. 
THE  TREASURES  OF  THE  EARTH. 

BY  CHARLES  WILLIAMS. 

O3  These  two  works  are  by  the  author  of  the  '  Veg- 
etable World  '  and  are  not  inferior  in  style  and  interest. 

III. 

PARENT'S  CABINET  OF  AMUSEMENT 
AND  INSTRUCTION.     VOLS.  I.  &  II. 

O3  This  is  a  work  which  has  had  unprecedented  suc- 
cess in  England,  and  is  recommended  by  the  English 
Reviewers  as  being  superior  to  any  work  now  published 
for  children. 

From  the  London  Literary  Oazette. 

1  Our  habitual  readers  are  aware  how  cautious  we  are  in  commend- 
ing books  intended  for  the  use  of  children.  In  no  branch  of  publication 
are  greater  mistakes  made ;  and  in  none  are  the  consequences  so  detri- 
mental, instead  of  benificial,  unless  a  sound  judgment  directs  the  good 


260 

intent.  We  are  glad  to  say  that  the  present  is  an  excellent  design  for 
the  juvenile  family  circle,  and  executed  with  a  right  feeling.  The 
characteristic  tales  are  interesting,  and  the  morals  unexceptionable  ; 
and  in  other  pieces,  where  instruction  is  more  aimed  at,  the  method  is 
attractive/ 


O*  It  is  the  intention  of  the  publishers  to  give  to  the 
public  a  series  of  useful  agreeable  and  cheap  Books  suita- 
ble for  children ;  and  to  that  end  a  gentleman  of  high  re- 
ligious and  literary  reputation,  now  in  Europe,  is  engag- 
ed in  the  selection  of  works  of  undoubted  character  and 
celebrity. 


